Research report: modifying paradigms--individual differences, creativity techniques, and exposure to ideas in group idea generation.

Publication: Information Systems Research

Publication Date: 01-SEP-01

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COPYRIGHT 2001 Institute for Operations Research and the Management Sciences

In today's networked economy, ideas that challenge existing business models and paradigms are becoming more important. This study investigated how individual differences, groupware-based creativity techniques, and ideas from others influenced the type of ideas that individuals generated. While individual differences were important (in that some individuals were inherently more likely to generate ideas that followed the existing problem paradigm while others were more likely to generate paradigm-modifying ideas that attempted to change the problem paradigm), the exposure to paradigm-modifying ideas from others and the use of intuitive groupware-based creativity techniques rather than analytical groupware-based creativity techniques were found to increase the number of paradigm-modifying ideas produced.

(Groupware; Creativity; Idea Generation; Feedback; Creativity Techniques; Individual Differences; Cognitive Style; Group Simulator; Myers-Briggs Type Indicator; MBTI; Kirton Adaption-Innovation Inventory; KAI)

1. Introduction

Driven by the recent shifts in business models, large companies such as Shell, Nortel, and Proctor and Gamble have undertaken major initiatives to spark innovation and creativity in hopes of generating new paradigm-breaking ideas that can transform their current products and services (Stepanek 1999). Many of these firms have created "idea factories," in which teams brainstorm using e-mail, Web-based groupware, and face-to-face meetings, with the goal of generating ideas that change existing business paradigms (Stepanek 1999). In forming idea factories, most companies have focused on finding creative people and giving them the resources they need because there is a long history that shows that some people are simply more creative than others (Guildford 1950, Amabile 1983, Ford 1996, Woodman et al. 1993). However, the exposure to ideas from other team members and the use of creative problem-solving techniques may be at least as important in creative idea generation (Amabile et al. 1996, Couger et al. 1993, Gallupe et al. 1992, VanGundy 1988). In this paper we examine the ways in which groupware-based creativity techniques, the ideas generated by other team members, and an individual's own creative style can influence creativity in terms of the type of idea produced by the participants.

First, we will briefly discuss creativity in general, followed by the ways that creative products may be measured, and the creative process that may lead to the formation of creative products. Next, we will discuss how individual differences, groupware-based creativity techniques, and the contribution of others can play a role in the creative process. The manner in which this research was performed will be covered in the methods sections, and the results will identify our findings. Our final section discusses our findings and their impact on management and further research opportunities.

2. Previous Theory and Research

2.1. Creativity and Creative Products

There are many definitions for creativity. We use the one suggested by Amabile (1983) and refined by Elam and her colleagues (Elam and Mead 1990, Marakas and Elam 1997) that argues that creative products are identified by the extent to which they are novel, as well as appropriate, useful, correct, or valuable. The overall creative process can be broken down into five steps: problem formulation, preparation, idea generation, idea evaluation, and idea selection (Amabile 1983). This study focuses on the heart of this process: idea generation.

The goal of idea generation is to create a pool of candidate ideas for further evaluation and, ultimately, implementation. In some cases, the goal is to create a large quantity of ideas, while in other cases, the goal is to create a few high quality ideas (De Bono 1970, Gallupe et al. 1992). The study of creativity has also emphasized the generation of novel ideas that are different from what has come before (Amabile et al. 1996, Mumford and Gustafson 1988, Oldham and Cummings 1996, Woodman et al. 1993). In this sense, idea novelty represents the rareness or uniqueness of an idea; more obvious (i.e., less novel) ideas will be generated more often, and more novel ideas will occur less often. Idea novelty can be particularly desirable because it can be important in distinguishing a firm from its competitors (Woodman et al. 1993).

In addition to quality and novelty, each idea can also be assessed according to the extent that it supports or challenges the existing paradigms or habitual routines that constrain individual and organizational behavior (Ford 1996, Kirton 1976). A paradigm in this research context refers to the fundamental elements of a problem and the relationships among them (Gryskiewicz 1987), which is slightly different from Kuhn's (1970) definition of a scientific paradigm as a complete and self-contained belief system. Paradigm-preserving (PP) ideas support or extend the existing paradigm; they are evolutionary in that they adapt elements of the existing paradigm. Paradigm-modifying (PM) ideas are revolutionary in that they redefine the problem or its elements (Gryskiewicz 1987, Kirton 1976, Kirton 1989). For instance, in the classic idea-generation problem of "How to use excess capacity of a tea-bag machine?," a paradigm-preserving solution would not attempt to alter the underlying framework of the question (i.e., a machine that makes tea bags needs to be used more). An example of a PP solution would be to put coffee in the tea bags. In contrast, paradigm-modifying ideas would change the relationships among problem components and might consider how to use the teabag material in a new form (e.g., mosquito netting). Paradigm-modifying ideas are often novel, yet not all novel ideas are paradigm modifying. It is the novel, paradigm-modifying ideas that are often the goal of the idea factories.

2.2. The Creative Process

While idea generation can be an individual activity performed in isolation, in most cases people do not generate ideas in isolation; often they work with others, as part of a formal or informal group to generate ideas (Drazin et al. 1999, MacCrimmon and Wagner 1994). Idea generation, under these conditions, is both a cognitive and a social process (Nagasundaram and Dennis 1993, Dennis et al. 1999). Individuals first conceptualize an idea (a cognitive process) and then choose whether or not to contribute it (a social process).

The cognitive production of an idea is the first step in idea generation. ACT* theory (Anderson 1983, 1987) argues that cognitive behavior is controlled by production rules--rules specifying the steps of cognition--that produce ideas when activated. Production rules are activated automatically by stimuli, without conscious control (Anderson 1992). For any given stimulus, there are often many production rules that could be activated. Each rule has a certain strength (i.e., likelihood of being activated) based on past experiences and inherent tendencies. The ideas produced depend upon the relative strengths of the individual's production rules.

However, not all ideas that are produced in a participant's mind are actually contributed; the individual must choose to contribute the idea. One of the most fundamental theories of human behavior is the theory of reasoned action (Ajzen and Fishbein 1980, Fishbein and Ajzen 1975). This theory--and its successors, such as the theory of planned behavior (Ajzen 1991)--argues that the decision to behave in a certain manner is affected by the relative importance of an individual's own attitude toward a behavior and the individual's understanding of the subjective norms toward a behavior. Therefore, the decision to contribute an idea is influenced by the individual's attitude toward the idea and his or her perceptions of the subjective norms of others towards the contribution of the idea (Ajzen and Fishbein 1980, Fishbein and Ajzen 1974). (1)

An individual's own attitude toward...

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