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COPYRIGHT 2001 International Reading Association Inc.
ABSTRACTS
"Just plain reading": A survey of what makes students want to read in middle school classrooms
Middle school students are often characterized as disinterested readers (McKenna, Kear, & Ellsworth, 1995), yet studies of adolescent reading typically do not feature students' voices about classroom practices (Alvermann, 1998). This study used students as primary informants about what motivates them to read in their middle school classrooms. We surveyed 1,765 sixth-grade students in reading/language arts classrooms in 23 diverse schools in the mid-Atlantic and northeastem United States. Students described how classroom environments motivated their reading through open-ended responses, short answers, and checklist items. To obtain richer data about positive instructional environments, we conducted follow-up interviews with 31 students in 3 classrooms in which students reported high engagement with reading. Using qualitative methodology, we conducted a content analysis of the survey responses and compared these findings with the interview data. We identified several overall findings about positive features of instruction. First, students valued independent reading and the teacher reading out loud as part of instructional time. Second, when asked what they liked most about time spent in the class, students focused more on the act of reading itself or personal reasons for reading rather than on social aspects or activities related to reading. Third, when students were asked what motivated them to read at school, they emphasized quality and diversity of reading materials rather than classroom setting or other people. When considering how middle school classrooms measure up, issues emerged about access to reading materials in the classroom and lack of diverse reading materials at school. These findings raise questions about the range of materials used for middle school reading/language arts instruction and the place and purpose of student independent reading.
"Simplemente Lectura": Un estudio sobre lo que motiva a los estudiantes a leer en Ia Escuela Media
Los estudiantes de escuela media son a menudo caracterizados como lectores desinteresados (McKenna, Kear, & Ellsworth, 1995), sin embargo los estudios sobre lectores adolescentes generalmente no otorgan importancia a la opinion de los estudiantes acerca de las practicas en el aula (Alvermann, 1998). Este estudio utilizo estudiantes como los informantes principales acerca de que los motiva a leer en la escuela media. Examinamos a 1,765 estudiantes de sexto gradoen clases de lectura y lengua, provenientes de 23 escuelas diversas del este de los Estados Unidos. Los estudiantes describieron como los contextos del aula motivaban Ia lectura a traves de respuestas abiertas, respuestas cortas y listas de itemes. Para obtener datos mas ricos acerca de los contextos positivos de ensenanza, realizamos mediante entrevistas el seguimiento de 31 estudiantes en 3 aulas en las cuales se reporto un alto interes por Ia lectura. Utilizando una metodologia cualitativa, realizamos el anilisis del contenido de las respuestas del e xamen y comparamos estos hallazgos con los datos de las entrevistas. Identificamos varios resultados generales acerca de los aspectos positivos de la ensenanza. En primer lugar, los estudiantes valoraban la lectura independiente y la lectura del docente en voz alta como parte del tiempo dedicado a ia ensenanza. En segundo lugar, cuando se les pregunto que les gustaba que de la clase, los estudiantes dieron mas importancia al acto mismo de la lectura o a las razones personales para leer que a los aspectos sociales o actividades relacionadas con la lectura. En tercer lugar, cuando se les pregunto que los motivaba a leer en la escuela, enfatizaron Ia calidad y la diversidad de los materiales de lectura en lugar del contexto del aula o las otras personas. Al considerar como las aulas de escuela media alcanzan las metas, surgieron cuestiones acerca del acceso a materiales de lectura en el aula y la falta de diversidad de los matedales en la escuela. Los resultados hacen surgir interrogantes acerca del rango de mat eriales usados en la ensenanza de la lectura y la lengua en la escuela media y el lugar y proposito de la lectura independiente de los estudiantes.
"Einfach nur Lesen": Eine Untersuchung daruber was Schuler in den Mittelschulklassen zum Lesen veranla[beta]t
schuler der Mittelschule werden oft als desinteressierte Leser charakterisiert (McKenna, Kear, & Ellsworth, 1995), jedoch brucksichtigen die Studien uber jugendliche Leser gewfihnlich nicht die Meinungsau[beta]erungen der Schuler uber Klassenraumpraktiken (Alvermann, 1998). Diese Studie nutzte Schuler als primare Informanten daruber, was sic in ihren Mittelschulklassenraumen zum Lesen motiviert. Wir untersuchten 1765 Schuler der sechsten Kiassen in Lese-/Sprachbereichsklassenrlumen in 23 verschiedenen Schulen in den mittelatlantischen und nordostlichen Vereinigten Staaten. Die Schfiler beschrieben wie Kiassenraumeinflusse ihre Leseleistungen durch zu erglnzende Erwiderungen, kurze Antworten und Einzelheiten in Pruflisten motivierten. Um reichere Daten fiber positive Unterrichtseinflusse zu erhalten, fuhrten wir Folgeinterviews mit 31 Schulem in 3 Klassenraumen durch, in denen die Schuler uber cine hohe Leseteilnahme berichteten. Durch Anwendung von qualitativer Methodologie ermittelten wir eine Inhaltsanalyse der uberpruften Antworten und verglichen diese Ergebnisse mit den Interviewdaten. Wir identifizierten mehrere allgemeingultige Erkenntnisse uber positive Auswirkungen der Lehranweisungen. Erstens, die Schuler schatzten selbstandiges Lesen und lautes Vorlesen des Lehrers als Teil der Unterrichtsanweisung. Zweitens, auf die Frage was sie am besten von der in der Kiasse verbachten Zeit empfanden, verwiesen die Schuler mehr auf die eigentliche Lesehandhabung oder auf personliche Grfinde zum Lesen statt auf soziale Aspekte oder daraufhin bezogener Aktivitaten zum Lesen. Drittens, befragte man die Schfiler, was sic zum Lesen in der Schule motivierte, hoben sic die Qualitat und Unterschiedlichkeit der Lesematerialien hervor, statt der Klassenraumumgebung oder anderer Mitmenschen. Bei der Bewertung wie Mittelschulklassen zucinander abschneiden, tauchten Punkte uber den Zugang zu Lesematerialien im Klassenraum und der Mangel an unterschiedlichen Lesematerialien in der Schule auf. Diese Ergebnisse stellen Fragen fiber den Umfang an Materialien der in Mittelschulen verwendeten Lese-/Sprach-Unterrichtsanweisungen und nach Ort und Zweckma[beta]ig keit des unabhangigen Lesens der Schuler.
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[much less than] Juste lire, tout simplement [much greater than]: une enquete sur ce qui donne envie de lire aux eleves des ecoles secondaires
On considere souvent que les eleves du secondaire sont peu interesses par la lecture (Mc Kenna, Kear, & Ellsworth, 1995), bien que les etudes sur la lecture des adolescents ne fassent pas entendre Ia voix des eleves au-dela des pratiques scolaires (Alvermann, 1998). L'etude effectuee prend les etudiants comme informateurs primaires a propos de ce qui les motive a lire dans les classes du second degre. Nous avons enquete aupres de 1,765 eleves de 6[degrees] annee a propos de l'enseignement de la lecture ou du langage dans 23 ecoles differentes du centre Atlantique et du nord-est des Etats-Unis. Les eleves ont decrit comment l'environnement scolaire motive leur lecture, au moyen de questions ouvertes, de reponses courtes, et de listes avec reponses a cocher. Pour parvenir a des resultats plus riches sur ce qui constitue un environnement didactique positif, nous avons prolonge l'enquete par des entretiens aupres de 31 eleves de 3 classes dont les eleves avaient manifeste un haut niveau d'investissement dans la lecture. Employant une methodologie qualitative, nous avons effectue une analyse de contenu des reponses de l'enquete et compare ces resultats avec ceux des entretiens. Ceci nous a permis d'identifier plusieurs resultats generaux concernant des traits didactiques positifs. Tout d'abord, les eleves apprecient la lecture autonome et le far que leur professeur fasse une lecture a haute voix pendant Ia classe. En second lieu, quand on leur a demande ce qui'ls aiment le plts en classe, les eleves se sont centres plus sur l'acte de lire proprement dit ou sur des raisons personnelles de lire que sur des aspects sociaux ou des activites liees a la lecture. En troisieme lieu, quand on demande aux eleves ce qui les motive a lire a l'ecole, ils ont mis l'accent sur la qualite et la variete du materiel de lecture plutot que sur a situation de classe ou les autres personnes. Quand on considere comment les classes de lecture du secondaire se montrent a la hat teur de la tache, on peut en tirer des consequences relativ es au materiel a lire en classe et au manque de materiel diversifie dans l'ecole. Ces resultats posent des questions sur la variete du materiel utilise pour l'enseignement de la lecture et du langage et sur la place et le but de la lecture autonome des eleves.
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Middle school students are known for negative attitudes and resistance toward reading (McKenna, Kear, & Ellsworth, 1995). However, when students talk about their reading, they make quite a different impression. Consider some of the responses we received when we asked over 1,700 sixth graders to explain what makes them want to read:
"I like learning about some things and sometimes I just want my imagination to run wild."
"Usually what makes me want to read in this class is if I start reading and it sounds good, I continue to read it. I read good books."
"Really I read what I find at the library interesting. Mostly I read books on Egyptians and buildings."
"What makes me want to read is the fact that I whant (want) to be a wrighter (writer) and derector (director) of movies."
"It makes me want to read when I hear it's our choice and no one else's!"
"I want to read because I like to. If the story is good I will red (read) forever."
"Usally (usually) if it's interesting I wouldn't mined (mind) it at all. If it's silent reading time."
Middle school reading instruction is full of mixed messages and inconsistency. One hallmark of middle school is an emphasis on students as individuals, yet teachers rarely differentiate instruction to meet student needs (Tomlinson, Moon, & Callahan, 1998). Students are assigned to read increasingly complex materials, but teachers spend little time showing them how to be strategic (Alvermann & Moore, 1991). Students are expected to know how to read a wide range of texts, yet in school they are likely limited to teacher-selected class novels (usually award-winning fiction) and textbooks (Worthy, Moorman, & Turner, 1999). Teachers want students to be able to read critically, but they seldom allow them to initiate conversations about books. Most importantly, students are expected to become independent readers, yet they get limited opportunities to explore their own interests in reading, to read at their own pace, or to make their own decisions about whether or not to read a book. In short, if the goal of instruc tion is to create skillful, versatile, engaged readers, then middle schools may be missing the mark.
What counts most for students in middle school reading instruction? How does that compare with what is happening in middle school classrooms? In this article we will address these questions by describing what we learned from over 1,700 sixth-grade students' responses to a survey we administered in a wide range of classrooms in two different areas of the United States. Our purpose was to have students shed light on some of the features of middle school reading instruction that foster their engagement with reading.
We begin with an examination of studies that address the tensions between instruction and reading achievement and learning among young adolescent students, followed by a rationale for why we decided to conduct our study. Next, we describe the methods employed in our survey research and in follow-up student interviews designed to add deeper understandings of the students' responses on the survey, along with limitations of our study. Then we present our results, which provided three categories of information: (a) What students valued most in their reading and language arts classes; (b) what students said motivated them to read; and (c) how well their middle school classrooms responded to these needs. Finally, we discuss our findings in relation to the existing research used to frame our investigation and suggest implications for future studies and for practice.
A conceptual framework For the study
Middle school students have been portrayed in research as apathetic, reluctant readers (Anderson, Tollefson, & Gilbert, 1985; Ley, Schaer, & Dismukes, 1994; McKenna et al., 1995). In framing the present study, we took the position that the tensions between middle school students and school reading can be mainly attributed to the mismatch between what students need and the instruction they likely receive rather than to fixed characteristics that define students (Ivey & Broaddus, 2000). Like others (Allington, 1994; Dillon, O'Brien, Wellinski, Springs, & Stith, 1996; O'Brien, 1998), we perceive that institutionalized structures and curricula in schools that are not responsive to students may foster both negative attitudes and school failure.
Research on the fit between young adolescent readers and instruction
The trend toward dissatisfaction with reading as students move into the middle grades and beyond may be linked to classroom instruction, and three themes run through research related to this phenomenon. First, typical reading demands in middle schools rarely take into consideration the developmental and personal differences between students. Ivey's (1999) case studies of three students in the same sixth-grade class highlighted not only the variation between them, but also the complexities within each of the three, calling for alternatives to one-size-fits-all instruction and for reading and writing experiences that showcase and capitalize on students' strengths rather than assignments that emphasize their weaknesses.
Although this kind of student-centered instruction is rare in middle schools, it has strong potential for lower achieving readers. A comparison of two investigations of reading-disabled middle school students clearly illustrates this point. After getting to know four students well through interviews, observation, and tutoring sessions, Kos (1991) concluded that, contrary to conventional wisdom on struggling readers, these students were motivated to improve their status as readers. The problem, as students saw it, was that they could not further develop in school as they knew it because curriculum and instruction were not designed to meet their particular needs. Morris, Ervin, and Conrad (1996) demonstrated the reverse situation. They documented the changes that occurred for one learning-disabled student who at the outset of the study looked much like the students Kos described. Reading instruction for this student had practically disintegrated, and the goal of his special education instruction was to get him through assignments in his academic subjects. However, after working with a tutor who tailored a reading program for him outside of school for 2 years, this student made significant strides.
The student-instruction mismatch also extends beyond the struggling reader. Competent adolescent readers who are reluctant to read in school indicate that they would do so given adequate time and access to personally engaging materials (Worthy & McKool, 1996). But Worthy et al. (1999) reported that, in general, what middle school students like to read is difficult to find in school. Even avid, proficient young adolescent readers who excel in school reading express dissatisfaction with assigned reading and writing that does not match their interests or purposes (Ivey, 1999).
Second, there is often a mismatch between what students want to learn and the content requirements of schools, particularly schools that are governed by district or state-mandated standards. Students in the middle grades and beyond are not only still developing as readers and writers, but also beginning to explore possible identities and a range of personal interests about the world. However, despite the concerns and curiosities of young adolescent students and suggestions for curriculum that is more relevant to their thinking and their lives (e.g., Beane, 1990; Stevenson, 1986), subject-area loyalties and content-driven teaching persist in middle school classrooms (George, Stevenson, Thomason, & Beane, 1992). Thus, the challenge for students to become more proficient and engaged readers and writers, in many cases without appropriate instruction, may be further complicated by subject matter that is uninteresting, difficult to understand, or both. O'Brien, Stewart, and Moje (1995) argued how attempts to integ rate content literacy in secondary schools have done little to alleviate this problem. They contended that the goals of content literacy have been confused in research, in teacher education, and in schools. Some approaches to content literacy, particularly content-area reading strategies, support traditional goals of schools, that is, learning specific content. Other approaches to content literacy encourage students to use reading, writing, and discussing to socially construct knowledge, giving students more control over what and how they learn. However, as O'Brien et al. pointed out, student-controlled learning does not fit with traditional school structures and practices and may be difficult for both students and teachers to accept. Although secondary teachers vary in their beliefs and practices, they typically resort to more teacher-centered instruction, especially when they perceive it is necessary to cover specific content (Bean, 2000).
Third and related, young adolescents may not be able to reconcile school reading and writing with their out-of-school reading and writing. Students who are resistant to school reading may read purposefully and strategically outside of school in materials they find interesting (Bintz, 1993; Worthy, 1998). Furthermore, students' reasons for reading and writing out of school may differ significantly from their reasons for reading in school. Bean and his two adolescent daughters, Shannon and Kristen (Bean, Bean, & Bean, 1999), pointed out that for these girls, the purpose of school reading was to answer questions and to accomplish other academic tasks. On the other hand, their out-of-school reading was linked to personal and socially oriented activities in which they explored a range of new roles and identities, such as being a performing artist. Also, their school reading was based mainly on traditional texts, while their out-of-school reading involved a range of media and technology. Likewise, the students Fin ders (1997) studied played out a range of social roles in what Finders called a "literate underlife" (p. 1) outside of the school curriculum. Students read, wrote, and talked about issues that were not sanctioned for them in typical classrooms. Relatedly, the young adolescents who participated in the after-school book discussion clubs facilitated by Alvermann, Young, Green, and Wisenbaker (1999) used these opportunities to develop social relationships and to explore social positions as they talked about what they read.
What we see in a vast majority of these studies are young adolescents who can and want to participate in literate activities, but who are without appropriate kinds of support or motivation to do so in schools. As a whole, these studies support Moore's (1996) recommendation that for adolescent literacy...
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