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Visual demonstration has long been acknowledged as one of the most powerful means of transmitting patterns of thought and behavior (Bandura, 1986). According to Bandura's (1977) social cognitive approach, in order for learning to occur through observation, a four-stage process must take place that involves attention, retention, motor reproduction and motivation. First, an individual must perceive and attend to the significant features of the modeled behavior (attention). In order to reproduce the behavior, the individual must then code the information into long-term memory (retention). Different methods of coding and retaining information include imagery, the use of analogies, and the use of verbal repetition of main points (Weinberg & Gould, 2003). Once the behavior is learned through attention and retention, the observer must possess the physical capabilities to learn to produce the movement by coordinating their muscle actions and their thoughts (motor reproduction). Finally, the individual must possess the motivation to attend to, remember, and practice the modeled behavior. Motivation can be either internal or external but must be strong enough to drive the observer to reproduce the behavior (Bandura, 1986). Attention and retention account for the acquisition or learning of a model's behavior, whereas reproduction and motivation control the performance of behavior.
Observational learning can serve both a cognitive and motivational function in sport (Cumming, Clark, Ste-Marie, McCullagh, & Hall, 2005; Feltz & Landers, 1983; McCullagh, Weiss, & Ross, 1989). The majority of observational learning research has focused on the cognitive function, gaining information about the acquisition and performance of motor skills, strategies, game plans and routines (e.g., Christina, Barresi, & Shaffner, 1990; Downey, Nell, & Rapagna, 1996; Williams & Grant, 1999). For instance, information concerning both the movement pattern and the end goal of the movement to be achieved are conveyed through observing demonstrations (Ferrari, 1996; McCullagh & Weiss, 2001). Other research has shown that the observation of a model can lead to improvements in form (e.g., Sidaway & Hand, 1993; Whiting, Bijlard, & den Brinker, 1987), as well as other important aspects of performance such as movement pattern recall and error recognition (McCullagh, Butch, & Siegel, 1990), the symbolic coding of physical activities into memorable words and images (Carroll & Bandura, 1982, 1985, 1987, 1990), and the timing of movement sequences (Adams, 1986; McCullagh & Caird, 1990).
It is also recognized that observational learning can have an effect on psychological responses such as the motivation to change or perform a behavior, coping with fear and anxiety, and cognitions such as self-confidence and self-efficacy such that it may affect physical activity patterns (Feltz, Landers, & Raeder, 1979; McAuley, 1985; Schunk, 1987; Starek & McCullagh, 1999; Weiss, Ebbeck, & Wiese-Bjornstal, 1993). The majority of this research originates from Bandura's (1986, 1997) belief that observational learning is a major source of self-efficacy, either through mastery experiences (i.e., seeing yourself perform the desired skill) or vicarious experiences (i.e., seeing others perform the desired skill). Enactive mastery experiences refer to actual information a person has about their ability to execute a particular behavior gathered from their prior experience with that task. With respect to vicarious experiences, Bandura (1986) noted that the closer the perceived similarity between the individual and the model, the greater the influence of the model on behavior. In a 1998 study, Weiss and colleagues (Weiss, McCullagh, Smith, & Berlant, 1998) found observational learning to be an effective technique for improving swimming skills, increasing self-efficacy, and regulating anxiety in children fearful of water. Moreover, research by Starek and McCullagh (1999) found that adult beginner swimmers reported increased self-efficacy beliefs when they viewed a model.
Recently, in a series of three studies, Cumming et al. (2005) developed a questionnaire to measure the cognitive and motivational functions of observational learning used by athletes. Study 1 consisted of developing the Functions of Observational Learning Questionnaire (FOLQ). The instrument assesses two cognitive functions (skill and strategy) and a motivational function (performance). In Study 2, psychometric support for the F OLQ was generated through factor analytical techniques. Finally, Study 3 confirmed the concurrent validity and the test-retest reliability of the questionnaire. More specifically, intraclass correlations provided support for the temporal reliability of the instrument. In addition, while no differences were found across gender and sport type, Cumming et al. found that athletes used observational learning more for its cognitive function than for its motivational function. It was concluded that athletes use observational learning to gain information about the acquisition...
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