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COPYRIGHT 2007 University of South Alabama
The popularity of extreme sports in this country has produced a groundswell of interest over recent years. More than 12 million physical activity enthusiasts participate annually in the extreme sport of skateboarding (American Sports Data Inc., 2001). Part of the allure of skateboarding may be its individualized, freestyle nature, where little more is demanded than a flat surface, the self-determination to master a trick, and an inherent desire to engage in sensation seeking behavior. Sport psychologists have long recognized the importance of psychological mood states to participation in sport. The present study is designed to examine whether goal orientations and sensation seeking are related to psychological mood states among a sample of skateboarders.
Two theoretical models relevant to participation in extreme sport are achievement goal theory and sensation seeking behavior. Achievement goal theory emphasizes the relevance of goal orientations, dispositions to utilize a differentiated or undifferentiated conception of ability, that are linked to cognitive perceptions, affective responses, and achievement behavior (Ames, 1992; Dweck, 1986; Dweck & Leggett, 1988; Nicholls, 1984, 1989). Goal orientations are central to the manner in which individuals define success and judge personal competence, both critical determinants of motivation (Duda, 2001). Task orientation represents a self-referenced conception of ability, where perceived success stems from personal improvement, performing one's best, and task mastery (Roberts, 2001). Ego orientation reflects an other-referenced conception of ability and a preoccupation to evaluate personal ability in relation to the performance of others, as perceived success is based upon the demonstration of superior ability and outperforming others (Roberts, 2001). Task and ego orientations are theoretically orthogonal in nature as an individual may express high or low levels on either goal orientation (Duda & Whitehead, 1998).
Cognitive-affective and behavioral correlates of goal orientations in physical activity have been well-documented (Duda & Whitehead, 1998; Roberts, 2001). A task orientation is associated to task mastery, the beliefs that both effort and hard work eventually lead to success and that sport should encourage a physically active lifestyle, and to moderate-to-vigorous physical exercise (Duda, 1989; Kimiecik, Horn, & Shurin, 1996; Roberts,
Treasure, & Kavassanu, 1996; Spray, Biddle, & Fox, 1999). Ego orientation, however, is related to the notion that sport is a means to enhance social status, and to the beliefs that success is the result of ability, deceptive tactics, and external factors (Duda, 1989; Roberts et al., 1996; Spray et al., 1999). Dunn and Dunn (1999) demonstrated that ego-oriented participants endorsed the use of aggressive behavior and anger in sport including verbal and physical intimidation, and intentional injurious behavior. Task-oriented individuals, however, expressed higher levels of sportspersonship such as greater respect for the rules and social conventions.
Goal orientations are also associated to affective reactions in the physical domain. Task orientation has been linked to positive affective reactions including intrinsic motivation, enjoyment, satisfaction/interest, and perceptions of individual improvement (Balaguer, Duda, Atienza, & Mayo, 2002; Boyd Weinmann, & Yin, 2002; Roberts, et al., 1996). Ego orientation, on the other hand, corresponds to negative affection reactions such as cognitive anxiety leading up to performance, and to both the intensity and direction of cognitive and somatic anxiety (Hall & Kerr, 1997; Ntoumanis & Biddle, 1998; White and Zellner, 1996). Conversely, tension/pressure, cognitive anxiety, and worry prior to competition are negatively related to task orientation (Boyd, et al., 2002; Hall & Kerr, 1997; White & Zellner, 1996). Theoretically, such evidence suggests that a task orientation may be positively associated with the mood state of vigor and negatively related to the mood states of tension and anger.
Although a task orientation and effort to improve to a higher level of skill proficiency may be a valuable asset in an extreme sport such as skateboarding, a measure of sensation seeking may also be adaptive to participation. Zuckerman (1994) outlines sensation seeking as, "a trait defined by the need for varied, novel, complex ... sensations and experiences, and the willingness to take physical, social ... risks for the sake of such experience" (pg. 27). Roberti (2004) documents behavioral correlates of sensation seeking such as high-risk sport participation, biological correlates including lower cortisol responsiveness to acute anxiety, and personality traits related to sensation seeking such as an openness to experience and high resistance to both physical and psychological stressors. Sensation seeking is traditionally measured using the Sensation Seeking Scale (Form V; Zuckerman, Eysenek, & Eysenck, 1978) which yields four subscales including experience seeking, disinhibition, boredom susceptibility, and thrill and adventure seeking (TAS) subscales. The TAS subscale was designed to measure sensation seeking in sport assessing the desire to search out risky, adventurous sports, containing speed or danger.
Sensation seeking in sport significantly predicts degree...
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