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COPYRIGHT 2006 Society for the Advancement of Management
Expatriates play an important role in the global strategies of many organizations by filling a skill gap in a foreign business operation, transferring management expertise or corporate culture, starting up new operations, and coordinating global activities (Black, and Gregersen, 1999; Harzing, 2001; Hocking, Brown, and Harzing, 2004). The need for expatriates to perform these activities remains high. In a 2004 study of global relocations trends conducted by GMAC Global Relocation Services, the National Foreign Trade Council, and SHRM, 85% of companies expected their expatriate workforce size to increase or remain the same for the coming year (GMAC Global Relocation Services [GMAC], 2004). Yet, evidence in both the research and practitioner literature suggests a reluctance among many managers to accept expatriate assignments, believing that such assignments may, among other things, derail their careers by placing them "out of sight" and "out of mind" of the home office (Andreason and Kinneer, 2004; Feldman and Thompson, 1992; Mendenhall, Dunbar, and Odou, 1987; Napier and Peterson, 1991; Selmer, 2001; Stroh, Gregersen, and Black, 1998).
Research shows that family issues affect the willingness of an employee to accept a foreign assignment (Tharenou, 2003). In the GMAC study, the most common reason for refusing an international assignment was family concerns (47%), far outweighing the next most common reason, career aspirations (14%). Similarly, Tung and Arthur Andersen (1997) found that few expatriates would accept an international assignment if their families objected to the assignment or could not accompany them. Several studies suggest that a spouse's willingness to relocate internationally (WTRI) is a strong predictor of the employee's willingness to relocate (Brett and Stroh, 1995; Brett, Stroh, and Reilly, 1990, 1992, 1993; Konopaske, Robie, and Ivancevich, 2005; Tung and Arthur Andersen, 1997). Consequently, greater understanding is needed about factors that might affect a spouse's WTRI.
One such factor is previous international experience, which is important for two reasons. First, it is not uncommon for those returning from an expatriate assignment to serve subsequent foreign assignments during their career if they are successful in their first (Black and Gregersen, 1991a; Black and Gregersen, 1998; Cendant Mobility, 2004; Tung, 1988; Tung and Arthur Andersen, 1997). Second, previous experience can help individuals develop reasonable expectations for a future relocation. Experiences associated with previous international assignments (e.g., personal adjustment to the foreign culture, impact on family, effectiveness of organizational support, etc.) can help an individual predict future outcomes associated with a subsequent international assignment and thus affect his or her WTRI (Black, Mendenhall, and Oddou, 1991).
Two important elements of previous international experience are the cross-cultural adjustment that occurs in the foreign country and the repatriation adjustment that occurs upon return (Andreason, 2003). Nevertheless, no study has explored the effects of assignment adjustment factors on a spouse's willingness to accept an additional foreign assignment. Consequently, this study examines the effect of spouse and family adjustment, both in country and upon repatriation, on a spouse's willingness to relocate internationally once again if the employee is offered an additional expatriate assignment.
Theoretical Framework
Due to the uncertainty inherent in employee relocations, especially international relocations, uncertainty reduction is a useful framework from which to study relocation issues (Kramer, 1993). Theorists suggest that individuals experiencing uncertainty are motivated to seek information to reduce uncertainty (Deci and Ryan, 1985). Scholars from both the domestic and international relocation literatures argue directly or imply that individuals generally want to reduce the uncertainty inherent in the new setting, especially concerning new behaviors that might be required or expected and old behaviors that would be inappropriate (Black et al., 1991; Eschbach, Parker, and Stoeberl, 2001). Individuals may act to reduce uncertainty by drawing upon past experience among other things, to make sense of a current or potential situation (Louis, 1980a).
As individuals enter a new work situation, they are usually uncertain about their ability to cope (e.g., learn acceptable and unacceptable behaviors, reestablish routines, etc.) (Black and Gregersen, 1991b). Brett (1980) asserts that relocations break daily routines and change the environment and social context in which those routines occur. Relocations produce feelings of anxiety, uncertainty, challenge, and lack of control. The potential for such anxiety and uncertainty is even greater in an international relocation due to large contrasts between the domestic and foreign settings (Black et al., 1991). Uncertainty is reduced by behaviors intended to establish (or reestablish) routines that create feelings of control and predictability (Brett, 1980; Louis, 1980a; 1980b).
Individuals may use their personal experience with previous transfers to reduce uncertainty (Brett, 1980). The number and length of previous international assignments has been shown to positively influence current assignment cross-cultural adjustment (Takeuchi, Tesluk, Yun, and Lepak, 2005). In addition to affecting adjustment factors, previous international experience may enable an employee to form accurate expectations concerning a future international assignment, thus reducing uncertainty (Black et al., 1991). Positive previous international assignment experiences should decrease uncertainty and increase the belief that a future assignment may be a favorable experience. It logically follows that factors reducing anticipated uncertainty will positively affect international relocation intentions.
A recent study listed family adjustment and repatriation as the top two challenges of an overseas assignment (Cendant Mobility, 2004). The current study proposes that positive past adjustment processes experienced by a spouse and his or her family should reduce anticipated uncertainty and create a positive effect on international relocation intentions.
Literature Review and Hypotheses
* Construct of willingness to relocate With few exceptions (e.g., Turban, Campion, and Eyring, 1992), research examining employee relocation decisions has used an intention measure, such as willingness to relocate internationally. While WTRI is not the same as actually moving, it is a relatively good predictor of the actual decision to move. Speare (1974) found a correlation of .44 between willingness to relocate and the actual relocation decision made during the following year. Brett and Reilly (1988) propose that as long as continued employment is not contingent upon accepting the transfer, the intent measure should be correlated with the actual decision to relocate.
The current study uses former expatriate spouses as subjects, which should provide a stronger link between intent to relocate and subsequent behavior in two ways. First, the subjects should perceive a reasonable likelihood of being called upon to serve a future international assignment since this is not uncommon if the family is successful in their first assignment (Black and Gregersen, 1991a; Black and Gregersen, 1998; Cendant Mobility, 2004; Tung, 1988; Tung and Arthur Andersen, 1997). Second, the subjects have previous experience living abroad, so their attitudes will have an experience component. Research suggests that attitudes formed through direct experience are more stable and predictive of behavior than those based on indirect or secondhand information (Fazio and Zanna, 1981; Petty and Krosnick, 1995).
* Cross-cultural adjustment factors
Cross-cultural adjustment is the degree of psychological comfort an individual feels concerning a new situation or culture (Gregersen and Black, 1990; Nicholson, 1984). Lack of adjustment to a new culture is viewed by researchers as a key factor in the high...
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