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COPYRIGHT 2005 Adam Mickiewicz University Press
ABSTRACT
This paper commences by examining the conditions for use of -er or more (or either) as the form of the index of comparison in English, followed by discussion of the forms for comparison of adverbs, and of the superlative index with both adjectives and adverbs. The syntax of a prototypical comparative construction (two participants compared in terms of one property, as in John is happier than Mary) is compared with that of a non-prototypical construction (two properties compared for one participant, as in John is more intelligent than sensible). Finally, there is brief consideration of inherently comparative expressions, and of the verb compare.
1. Introduction
The prototypical comparative scheme, which is found in most (but not all) human languages, involves comparing two participants in terms of the degree of some gradable property relating to them. There are three basic elements: the two participants being compared, and the property in terms of which they are compared. Consider the sentence:
1) John is more famous than Bill. COMPAREE INDEX PARAMATER MARK STANDARD
The participants are:
COMPAREE--that which is being compared, here John.
STANDARD of comparison--what the comparee is being compared against, here Bill.
The property is:
PARAMETER of comparison--here famous.
A prototypical comparative scheme will generally also include:
INDEX of comparison--here more (with a different choice of adjective it could be -er).
Within any clause, there must be some marking of the function of each argument. In English the Comparee is subject (shown by its position before the verb), with the Standard of comparison receiving special marking. We get:
MARK of the grammatical function of the Standard--than.
This paper deals with comparative constructions in my dialect of educated British English. (2) It begins, in [section] 2, with consideration of the form of the index of comparison, and the conditions for using more or -er or either. There is then discussion of comparison of adverbs, and of the superlative index with both adjectives and adverbs. The syntax of comparatives is the topic of [section] 3. Two brief sections then mention inherently comparative expressions, and the verb compare. (Note that I basically follow the transcriptional system of Jones (1956), who documents a dialect of educated British English very similar to my own).
2. Form of the Index of comparison
We can exemplify positive and negative instance of the prototypical comparative scheme in English by:
2a) John is fatter than Tom.
2b) John is less fat than Tom.
2c) John is more intelligent than Tom.
2d) John is less intelligent than Tom.
These are copula clauses with the Parameter of comparison being an adjective, in copula complement function. The positive Index of comparison is either a suffix -er/-[??](r)/, or a modifier more, /m:[??]/ or / m[??][??]/. There are corresponding superlative Indexes -est, /-[??]st/ or /-ist/, and most, /moust/. The negative index of comparison has a single form, comparative less, /les/, and superlative least /li:st/.
The origin of the periphrastic Indexes more, most, less and least is interesting. In Old English, the adjectives micel 'big' and lytel 'little' had the following paradigm:
PLAIN COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE big micel mara maest little lytel laessa laest
The form micel dropped out of use (being replaced by big), but its comparative and superlative were retained as general periphrastic Indexes for adjectives which do not take -er or -est (and for some that do). The comparative and superlative of little took the same path, becoming dissociated from the adjective little. For the comparative of little one just had to use smaller and smallest. Only recently have new comparative and superlative forms, littler and littlest, started to come into use.
Besides being used for qualitative comparison, more and less also have a quantitative sense, as in Three times three is more than six plus two, There are more people in Sydney than in Melbourne, and He drinks less (beer) than he used to.
English still retains irregular paradigms for three adjectives:
PLAIN COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE good better best bad worse worst far farther/further farthest/furthest
Regular comparative and superlative forms older and oldest have now replaced the original irregular forms elder and eldest. The latter are retained in frozen lexical items such as the elders of the church/the tribe and elder brother/sister In a prototypical comparative construction, only older (and oldest) may be used.
The Indexes can be modified. For example:
3) [ILLUSTRATION OMITTED]
An Index of comparison may also be preceded by an adverb such as even, simply, really, or kind-of.
When used in a prototypical comparative construction such as (1-2), with two participants and one property, some adjectives only take -er (for example, big, kind), some only take more (intelligent, beautiful), while others may take either (friendly, stupid) as the Index of comparison. When two properties are compared with respect to one participant, in a non-prototypical comparative construction, we get:
4) Mary is more kind than intelligent.
One cannot say *Mary is kinder than intelligent. That is, when the first adjective in a construction like (4) is one which would normally take -er (or an irregular comparative), it must in this context take mope. This is discussed further in [section] 3. (Note that whereas the prototypical comparative construction is found many language, a non-prototypical construction such as (4) occurs in far fewer languages.)
Whether a given adjective may take -er or more in a prototypical comparative construction is almost predictable. (3) It depends on a combination of factors:
--the phonological form of the adjective,
--its frequency of usage in the language,
--whether or not it refers to a property which is, in a logical sense, gradable.
The most basic parameter is phonological form, as set out in Table 1, shown on pages 20 and 21. During and after commentary on the table, I will refer to the other two factors. Note that parentheses around /[??]/ or [check] in Table 1 indicate that this is a less preferred possibility.
The orthographic form -er has the following phonological forms:
i) /-g[??]/ after a monosyllable ending in /n/; for example, long,/'l[??]n/, longer, /'l[??]ng[??]/,
ii) /-[??]/ elsewhere, that is: after a consonant other than /n/, as in wide, /'waid/, wider, /'waid[??]/; after a vowel other than /[??]/, as in grey, /'grei/, greyer, /'grei[??]/; true, /'tru:/, truer, /'tru(:)[??]/; pretty, /'priti/, prettier, /'priti[??]/.
A set of adjectives have orthographic form ending in or with the last vowel being /[??]/. In some dialects, particularly in Scotland and the USA, a final /r/ is generally pronounced. However, in standard English and...
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