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COPYRIGHT 2004 Blackwell Publishers Ltd.
The Challenge of the Millennium: Confronting Cultural Myths from the Margins
CURRENT ESTIMATES PREDICT THAT BY THE MIDDLE OF THIS CENTURY, American society will reflect a true mosaic as people of color become the majority and white Americans become the minority. One ramification of the American population becoming more diverse will be a transformation of the underlying myths that have formed the basic values and beliefs of this nation. In fact, led by the "voices from the margins," people of color are challenging long accepted cultural myths by rejecting the common belief that our cultural myths are universal. Our cultural myths are being brought into question to reveal the complexities of our myths and to emphasize that other marginalized myths do exist. Exposing how myths often exaggerate American ideals and downplay egregious injustices has resulted in a more dynamic understanding of the cultural ideals, values, and beliefs that form the foundation of our country. For example, Native Americans have challenged the myth of "manifest destiny," and have received an apology from the assistant secretary for Indian Affairs for the agency's past conduct against the Indian nations and the Indian people. African Americans are questioning the myths associated with our founding fathers to reveal the long-lasting effects that slavery has had in oppressing African Americans economically, politically, and socially as the community debates a solution from reparations to an apology. (1) Likewise, disability advocacy groups have proclaimed that the new FDR Memorial, which depicts the former president in his wheelchair, is an inspiration to all people, removing "the shroud of shame that cloaks disability" (Tucker A7). These examples illustrate that questioning our cultural myths helps promote a more honest and complete understanding of history because "Americans are discovering that their history has a lot more grays than their textbooks suggested" (Shribman B3).
The recent interrogation of the culture's dominant myths illustrates that myths are a critical way for all cultures to articulate shared beliefs and encourage future actions based upon a particular notion of the past (or the "present" as articulated through the past). Although all cultures use myths, they use them differently to espouse a multitude of values. In American society, people from various heritages can demonstrate cultural differences through a clash of mythic narratives. How these mythic narratives are presented to mainstream audiences is a matter of ideological power and discursive force. This cultural clash of mythic narratives is illustrated in the film The Horse Whisperer.
I will analyze The Horse Whisperer to illustrate how three interrelated myths--the agrarian, the wisdom of the rustic, and the frontier myth--reflect a larger dialectical tension between the western myth and the metropolitan myth. This dialectical tension offers a social commentary between two perspectives vying for widespread acceptance in our culture in the effort to create, define, and maintain power relationships. To make this argument, I will define myth and discuss the theoretical framework for the analysis of The Horse Whisperer. However, before I discuss the mythic scholarship, it is necessary to justify why the film The Horse Whisperer is appropriate for analysis.
The Horse Whisperer serves as an appropriate text for analysis because, as Janice Rushing explained, the film recreates one of the most enduring of American myths: the western myth ("The Rhetoric" 15). Our society has idolized and romanticized the western myth in history books, films, and television shows, creating an unquestioned and idealized history of our western expansion and the settling of the frontier. In fact, America from its settlement has relied on the frontier for its identity: the rugged frontiersman conquering the wilderness. The frontier myths influenced the great western expansion of "manifest destiny," which justified taking the land from Native Americans. Moreover, The Horse Whisperer (1998) received acclaim from the motion picture industry as a nominee for one Academy Award and two Golden Globes, including best motion picture drama and best motion picture director. (2) In addition, the film was produced and directed by Robert Redford, who over the years through films such as The Natural, has constructed a wholesome public persona through his "everyman" and "All-American" characters. In fact, Redford has won the Freedom in Film award for his career and for his involvement in social and political issues ("Redford Wins" C2).
Mythic Criticism: Definition and Theoretical Framework
Although the literature provides various definitions of myths, there are some common themes that appear in almost all of the definitions. In general, a myth can be understood as a story, a narrative (Frye 465; Osborn 121). It is a narrative that represents an active drama that people can identify with and participate in. Frye argued that "[Myth] ... is a presentation of human history in a participating form so that in a myth one can tell that one's own life and fortunes are involved in the story being told" (468). For example, the frontier myth involves the active narrative of conquering the wilderness and overcoming struggles to succeed. The themes of conquering and overcoming struggles are universal values that people can relate to and identify with. Therefore, myths are based on cultural values that influence the beliefs and behaviors of individuals in a culture. This means that myths can be personal and individual, and ethnic and national. Because myths construct meaning both individually and nationally, they serve as a means for people to connect to their culture.
Definition
Waldo Braden's definition of myth clearly conceptualizes how myth is referred to in this article. He states,
The myth draws upon memory and imagination, that it results from a collective effort over a considerable period of time, that it represents an oversimplification of events, persons, and relationships, that its substance is more emotional than logical, and that it combines both reality and fiction. In other words, it results from considerable abstracting on the part of many persons. (116)
Braden's definition implies that myth is an idealized narrative, based on tradition, that defines cultural values and beliefs and is perpetuated by a society. Rhetorically, a myth upholds cultural values, defines acceptable morals, and validates certain beliefs, expectations, and behaviors. Although myths tend to appeal more to emotion than logic, the subject matter of the narrative must offer an acceptable justification of the ideas contained in the myth. The actual truth or falsity of the narrative is irrelevant. What is important is whether the ideas presented in the narrative are accepted and believed to be true (Sykes 17-18).
The literature suggests that there are four primary ways that myths function. First, myths function to confirm, intensify, and reinforce attitudes, beliefs, and values (Braden 122; Sykes 20-21). Unlike other rhetorical strategies, myths appeal to emotions already held by the audience. Speakers who use myths are not asking the audience to change their beliefs; they are eliciting beliefs that are already held by the audience. Second, myths serve as a means for escaping reality (Braden 119). Myths form an idealized romantic setting that never existed and provide an escape from everyday reality. They conveniently emphasize certain aspects of life while ignoring others. Third, myths are a means to unify diverse audiences because they convey universal values such as liberty, freedom, and...
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