Female athletes' perceptions of parental influences.

Publication: Journal of Sport Behavior

Publication Date: 01-DEC-05

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Parents are visible at every youth and interscholastic sport venue and their influence on children's sport participation and performance is unquestioned, though not thoroughly understood. Most recently, parental involvement in sport has gained national attention through the phrase "soccer mom" to characterize the "middle-America" mom roaming the sidelines supporting her children. On a less positive note, recent stories of parents attacking coaches or officials provide further evidence of the presence of parents in sport. Parents patrol the sidelines, shout encouragement from the bleachers, and often coach, whether officially assigned the task or not. This emotional investment is often matched by significant financial investments. Coaching, travel, equipment, facilities, etc. increase the price tag for sport participation and parents pick up the tab. While we recognize the potential influence of parental involvement, we know little about how young athletes perceive parental investment and support. Nor do we understand the potential influence of parents on the psychological variables of motivation and anxiety.

Incorporating the critical role of parents in theoretically-based investigations of young athletes' motivation was encouraged by Brustad (1992). Several researchers have responded by employing Competence Motivation Theory (Harter, 1978; 1981) and Achievement Motivation Theory (Nicholls, 1984; 1989) in their research (Babkes & Weiss, 1999; Duda & Horn, 1993; Weiss & Hayashi, 1995). Critical to these two theories is the salience of significant others in the development of perceived competence and goal orientations. The Expectancy-Value Model proposed by Eccles (Eccles & Harold, 1991; Eccles, Wigfield, & Schiefele, 1998; Parsons, Adler, & Kaczala, 1982), however, provides a unique, yet complex, examination of social influences on achievement beliefs and behaviors. Although this model was originally developed to explain academic achievement patterns, (Eccles & Hoffman, 1984; Parsons, 1983; Parsons et al., 1982), it has been applied to both academic and athletic contexts (Eccles & Harold, 1991; Fredricks & Eccles, 2002; Rodriquez, Wigfield, & Eccles, 2003). Specific to this investigation,

Eccles' model, identifies the influential nature of parental beliefs on the perceived value of an activity and expectations of their children's' likelihood for success in specific activities. Further, an inspection of the Expectancy-Value Model (Eccles & Harold, 1991; Eccles et al., 1998; Fredricks & Eccles, 2002; Parsons et. al., 1982) provides additional insight into determining how athletes interpret and incorporate their parents' beliefs and expectations into their own self-perceptions and behaviors (Fredricks & Eccles, 2004).

Eccles' (Eccles & Harold, 1991; Eccles et al., 1998; Fredricks & Eccles, 2002; Parsons et al., 1982) model is based on the premise that the choices that one makes are primarily guided by one's expectations of success and the value of the activity. Expectations of success are based on perceived competence and the perceived difficulty of the task. In regards to task values, Eccles and her colleagues have identified four contributors to the assessment of task value.

These include the enjoyment or intrinsic value of the task, the usefulness or utility of the task in reaching future goals, the perceived importance of doing well at the task, and the perceived negative aspects or costs of the task (Fredricks & Eccles, 2004). Eccles' model proposes that continued participation is premised on generally favorable perceptions of these components (e.g. high enjoyment, contribution to achieving goals, perceived importance, and low perceived costs). Of equal importance is the balancing of these contributors as they ultimately influence task value. While self concept of ability, perceived task difficulty, interpretations of one's performance, attributions for success and failure, gender-role stereotypes all influence children's expectations and task value, Eccles and her colleagues propose that parents are among the most influential contributors because they both provide and interpret experience for their children (Fredricks & Eccles, 2004)

One specific segment of Eccles' model demonstrates the role of "parent's child-specific beliefs" and behaviors in the development of perceptions of ability (Fredricks & Eccles, 2004). The importance of parental influence was highlighted in Eccles et al. (1998) and Fredricks and Eccles (2004). Recent research has demonstrated that children whose parents exhibited more positive beliefs and behaviors about their competency reported higher levels of perceived competence (Babkes & Weiss, 1999). Parents convey this message in their beliefs about, and expectations of their child's abilities and achievement tasks by the supportive behavior and encouragement they provide for participation in the activity (Eccles et al., 1998; Fredricks & Eccles, 2002). Subsequently, young athletes incorporate their parents' beliefs into their own self-perceptions and activity choices.

Secondly, parents convey messages about the value or importance of success at an activity. Eccles and Harold (1991) demonstrated that children's perceptions of the value that their parents placed on their participation/performance in sport was related to the children's own perception of their ability and continued participation in sport. More recently, Fredricks and Eccles (2002) found that beliefs about ability in sport declined over time, however, children with parents who rated their sports competence as high, especially early in their school years, experienced a slower rate of decline. Taken together, the expectancy and value components provide important insight into understanding the role of parental beliefs and behavior on children's motivation in sport.

Fredricks and Eccles (2002) further identify the influence of parents in the development of goal orientations and beliefs about success on both expectations of success and task value. The relationship between parental beliefs and values and their children's motivation has been further supported by the work of Duda and Hom (1993) on the development of goal orientations in young athletes. Goal orientations have been identified as critical determinants of achievement behavior in sport. In an examination of youth basketball players, Duda and Hom (1993) found a positive relationship between the task and ego orientation of players and the players' perceptions of their parents' degree of task and ego orientation. Similarly, Ebbeck and Becker (1994) found that perceived parent goal orientations were a primary predictor of motivational goal orientations in youth soccer players. Specifically, higher scores on perceived parental task and ego orientation were associated with higher scores on player ego orientation. Further, higher scores on perceived parental task orientation as well as lower scores on perceived performance climate were associated with a higher level of task orientation. These studies support Eccles' integration of socialization influences, particularly parental behaviors, into the study of children's motivation.

Central to concepts of achievement and motivation are the potential pressures associated with a competitive environment. Within Expectancy-Value models, these pressures negatively...

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