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COPYRIGHT 2001 University of South Alabama
This study examined qualitative and quantitative aspects of flow within a group of college-age athletes. Forty-two athletes (27 males and 15 females) representing team sports (n = 28) (football, baseball, volleyball, softball, and basketball) and individual sports (n = 14) (swimming, track, wrestling, and triathlon) were interviewed on what factors they felt helped, prevented, and disrupted flow occurrence. Previous qualitative flow examination was extended (Jackson, 1995) and an interview format was developed in which an inductive analysis was performed Raw data which were integrated into higher order themes and general dimensions resulted in nine factors helping flow, eight dimensions preventing flow, and six dimensions disrupting flow that synthesized the 148 themes suggested by the athletes. Results of the qualitative analysis revealed marked overlap to previous qualitative results, however this sample perceived flow to be less controllable than elite athletes. In addition, these athletes completed the Fl ow State Scale (Jackson & Marsh, 1996) to obtain a quantitative assessment of flow relationships. Results of a two-way MANOVA (gender x sport type) on FSS subscales resulted in a nonsignificant interaction (p =.62) and nonsignificant main effects for gender (p =.45) and sport type (p =.11). In addition, separate two-ANOVAs performed on FSS subscales and total FSS scores with Bonferroni test to correct for family-wise error rate, indicated only one significant main effect for sport within the action-awareness subscale (F=9.62, p =.004). College athletes appear to have similar experiences of flow states, regardless of gender or sport type. Results are discussed in terms of the importance of examining both qualitative and quantitative aspects of flow occurrence in athletes.
Flow has been described as a state of optimal experience (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990) involving total absorption in a task at hand, and creation of a state of mind where optimal performance is capable of occurring. Csikszentmihalyi (1990) argued that there are particular activities that are more likely to produce flow, and personal traits that help people achieve flow more easily. A critical qualification of this state is that flow is not dependent upon the objective nature of challenges or the objective level of one's skills, but that flow is entirely dependent on one's perception of the challenges and their skill (Csikzentmihalyi, 1975). Recent research has examined possible associations between flow state and athletic performance (Jackson, Kimiecik, Ford, & Marsh, 1998; Jackson, 1992, 1993, 1995; Jackson & Roberts, 1992; Stein, Kimiecik, Daniels, & Jackson, 1995). The apparent association between flow state and peak performance (Jackson, 1992, 1993; Jackson & Roberts, 1992; Privette & Bundrick, 1991) makes un derstanding flow tantamount to the athlete, coach, and sport psychologist. Knowledge gained of these factors is important in helping athletes to prepare for optimal performance.
In explaining predispositions to experience flow, Csikzentmihalyi (1990) argued that particular activities that are more likely to produce flow, traits that assist in producing flow, and that there is a link between peak performance and peak experience (McInnman & Grove, 1991). Specifically, Csikzentmihalyi (1975) indicated that a skill-challenge balance was an essential precursor flow occurrence, and that flow was dependent upon the individual's ability to structure their consciousness so as to make flow possible. The complexities in examining flow relate to the concerns over qualitative and quantitative research approaches (Jackson & Marsh, 1996), yet the ability to effectively incorporate these approaches to the study of flow may have implications for applied sport psychology consultants. By identifying the psychological factors that enhance, inhibit, and disrupt flow, consultants and coaches may be better able to help athletes achieve optimal performance (Kimiecik & Stein, 1992).
Jackson (1992) provided information from in-depth interviews with elite figure skaters about specific factors related to flow occurrence. These skaters indicated that flow was facilitated by positive mental attitude, positive pre-competitive and competitive affect, maintaining appropriate focus, physical readiness, and partner unity. Factors perceived to prevent or disrupt flow were physical problems/mistakes, inability to maintain focus, negative mental attitude, and lack of audience response. Jackson (1995) later examined athletes' responses to questions about what facilitated, prevented, and disrupted flow in 28 elite athletes from seven different sports. Results of interview responses revealed 10 dimensions and included salient factors such as physical and mental preparation, confidence, focus, how performance felt, and optimal motivation, and arousal. In addition, 79% of the athletes surveyed felt that factors facilitating or preventing flow were perceived as controllable.
Jackson (1996) recently investigated athletes responses and found correspondence between dimensions of flow described by Csikzentmihalyi (1990) and athletes descriptions of their flow experiences. Through qualitative analysis of athletes interviews, those dimensions of flow represented most across the group's data were the autotelic experience of flow, total concentration on the task at hand, merging of action and awareness, and the paradox of control (Jackson, 1996). The autotelic dimension of flow has been defined as an intrinsically motivating participation in an activity for it's own sake and is an aggregate of all other flow dimensions (Jackson, 1996). One consistent finding has been that when the activity was perceived as enjoyable, athletes described their state of mind in similar terms (Jackson & Csiksentmihalyi. 1999). Jackson, Kimiecik, Ford & Marsh (1998) recently examined psychological correlates within trait and state flow. Results provided support for the construct of flow in that similar sets of predictor variables explained significant relationships with flow at both the subscale and global level. Specific predictors were perceived ability, anxiety, concentration disruption, anxiety-worry and intrinsic motivation to experience stimulation. Support for construct validity of flow scales was also demonstrated in that the flow trait challenge-skill balance was most highly correlated with the trait measure of perceived ability, and the authors concluded that high perceived ability is crucial to facilitating flow states (Kimiecik et al., 1998). It may be that less-skilled athletes are less likely to experience flow because both their actual and perceived level of skill are lower than elite athletes.
In an effort to quantitatively study flow, the Flow State Scale (FSS; Jackson & Marsh, 1996) was developed. The nine FSS scales of the 36-item instrument represent Csikzentmihalhi's (1990) nine dimensions of flow and each dimension is measured by four items. The approach in developing the FSS was to establish construct validity of an inventory designed to measure flow as a hypothetical construct. Confirmatory factor analysis supported the nine scales and a hierarchical model in which one global flow factor explained correlations between the nine FSS factors. Internal consistency estimates for the FSS scales were satisfactory (alpha M = .83). The usefulness of a single global score compared to the set of nine FSS scores was not determined. In addition, it was proposed that future research use the FSS in determining various group differences (Jackson & Marsh, 1996).
Conceptual and methodological issues related to flow research have been noted (Kimiecik & Stein, 1992). Conceptual concerns such the nature of flow and how it occurs have been addressed in qualitative analyses of the flow concept (Jackson, 1995, 1996), yet other personal and situational variables such as gender and sport setting remain largely unexamined in their relationship with flow occurrence. Use of the FSS may help to clarify the qualitative relationships and complex construct of this concept.
The richness of the flow construct necessitates that measures are inclusive and incorporate both qualitative and quantitative approaches. Several dimensions of flow have been theoretically discussed and supported by research (Jackson, 1995, 1996; Jackson & Marsh, 1996; Jackson et al., 1998). In addition, sport and exercise psychology research has recognized the need for multidimensional and sport-specific measurements (Gill, Dzewaltowski, & Deeter, 1988; Vealey, 1986). Therefore, in order for researchers to assess flow in a more systematic fashion, it is necessary to incorporate quantitative assessment of this construct into investigation that may delineate systematic relationships between potential antecedents of flow.
The purposes of this study were to (a) determine whether differences existed across gender or sport setting with regard to factors important to flow state, as measured by the Flow State Scale (Jackson & Marsh, 1996) and (b) extend the work of previous qualitative study of flow (Jackson, 1992,1995,1996) by examining factors which were relevant to helping, preventing, and disrupting flow in a sample of male and female college athletes from team and individual sports.
Method
Participants
Fifty male and 50 female college athletes were identified from a large Midwest university and were sent a letter asking if they would volunteer to participate in a study assessing psychological factors related to athletic performance. Athletes who responded to a letter of invitation asking if they would be willing to be interviewed about optimal sport experiences were included. The number of participants was the result of maximizing the overall N and an attempt was made to obtain equal males and females. The final number of participants in this study was 42 college-age athletes (27 males, 15 females). The mean age for participants was M = 20.43, SD = 1.99 with a range of 17 to 27...
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