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COPYRIGHT 2001 JAI Press, Inc.
1. Introduction
In recent years, concern over respect for elders has been increasing (Belmont Report, 1978; Chipperfield & Havens, 1992; Ingersoll-Dayton & Saengtienchai, 1999; Leininger, 1990; Lew, 1995; McKee, 1982; Mehta, 1997; Nydegger, 1983; Palmore & Maeda, 1985; Post, 1989; Silverman & Maxwell, 1978; Streib, 1987; Sung, 1998a).
There have been reports on the tendency among some young people to mistreat helpless old persons, to abandon frail elders, and to disrespect the elderly in general (Kim, 1998; Lau & Kosberg, 1979; Moon & Williams, 1993; Pillemer & Finkelhor, 1988; Tomita, 1994). Many of the aged in the world probably suffer from disrespect; only a minority may be maintaining respect from younger generations because of unusual accomplishments (Nydegger, 1983; Palmore & Maeda, 1985). Without respect, the young would not be able to have positive attitudes toward the elderly and treat them with propriety. Respect remains an essential element in maintaining the status of the elderly (Leininger, 1990; Nydegger, 1983; Palmore & Maeda, 1985). It remains puzzling, however, that the theme of respect is so noticeably absent from most discussions of aging.
The elderly are those who have contributed to their families and society throughout their lifetime. Above all, most of them are parents who raised, educated, and cared for children. For aging parents, adult children are an essential part of their support system. How these children treat the aged is of major concern to the elderly, as well as to society.
(Hereafter, "respect for the elderly" is termed "elder respect." The term "elder" here denotes parent, grandparent, other elderly relative, teacher, neighborhood elder, and elders in general.)
Cultural change has a significant effect on elder respect (Nydegger, 1983; Palmore, 1989; Silverstein, Burholt, Wenger, & Bengtson, 1998; Simic, 1990; Streib, 1987). In a culture, values, norms, roles, and patterns of social interaction associated with elder respect persist from generation to generation (Palmore & Maeda, 1985; Streib, 1987). The peoples of East Asia have a notable tradition of elder respect. The Chinese, the Japanese, and Koreans have shared this tradition for many generations (Lang, 1946; Park, 1983; Silberman, 1962). [The Chinese here include those in the mainland China, Hong Kong, Taiwan, and Singapore, which altogether comprise the larger Chinese community of Asia.]
The traditional basis for elder respect is Confucian teachings of filial piety. In the teachings, respect for parents and elders is the most stressed point (Teachings of Filial Piety, 1989, Chaps. 7 and 9). Filial piety essentially directs offspring to recognize the care and aid received from their parents and, in return, to pay respect for their parents (Kong, 1995; Lew, 1995; Takahashi, 1995).
Until now, elder respect has been described in abstract terms; it has been a concept too general to provide clear guidance for practice. The view that does receive popular support is that elder respect is "being courteous and obedient to elders." Elder respect as colloquially described has been characterized by emphasis on these general principles.
If we carefully explore the concept of elder respect in literature on filial piety, however, such a simplistic conceptualization does not seem appropriate for a realistic understanding of this extensive and complex ideal. Confucian writers described how parents and the elderly should be respected in a variety of forms and the importance of individual forms has been treated by writers in varied ways depending on their belief and interests, and the context of discussion. Thus, the complete distinction of how elders should be respected is still an unresolved issue. To better understand respect for elders, its forms should first be thoroughly explored.
The purpose of this paper is to explore the forms of respect prevalent among East Asian peoples, namely the Chinese, the Japanese, and Koreans, and provide a comprehensive set of such forms for future studies. For this purpose, the paper first reviews the traditional meanings of elder respect in Confucian literature, and then explores forms of respect widely observed among the Asian peoples based on findings of recent studies on elder respect in Asia. There are signs of shift in the way in which elder respect is expressed by young generations in East Asian societies. Certain aspects of this shift are discussed. It is not the purpose of this paper to discuss the philosophy of respect but rather to explore the explicit actions of respect practiced in daily living.
2. Ideals of elder respect
The first part of the present study was to review the passages excerpted from the traditional literature to find out the root meanings of elder respect. The Book of Rites (1993) (Li Chi: Confucian teachings on rites or propriety), Analects of Confucius (1996) (Lun Yu: sayings and deeds of Confucius and his disciples on a scope of subjects including education and moral cultivation), and the Teachings of Filial Piety (1989) (Hsiao Ching: guidelines for the practice of filial piety) laid down a number of rules that children were to follow to fulfill their filial duties. The passages are widely quoted in discussions of respectful treatment of parents and elders, roles and duties of adult children, and intergenerational relations.
For Confucius (also known as "the Master"), being filial to parents meant treating parents with propriety. The Chinese "li" (propriety or rites, rules of proper conduct) refers not only to formal ritual prescriptions for elder respect but also to an inner disposition of the mind and heart for elder respect (de Bary, 1995, pp. 58-59). The nexus of propriety in Confucian teachings is both deference (respectful submission) and reverence (feeling of deep respect tinged with awe) toward parents.
Confucius said,
If a person is governed by showing deference, what difficulty would there be in performing propriety? (Analects of Confucius [Lun Yu], 1996, Book 4, Chap. 13).
When a disciple asked about being filial. The Master said,
Filial piety today is taken to mean providing nourishment for parents, but even dogs and horses are provided with nourishment. If it is not done with reverence for parents, what is the difference between men and animals? (Analects of Confucius [Lun Yu], 1996, Book 2, Chap. 7; de Bary, 1995).
As is evident, the innermost feeling of respect was most important to the Master. It would seem that the Master in these passages authorized no blind conformity to formalities and material support but rather...
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