Teaching daily living skills to children with autism through instructional video modeling.

Abstract: Research on video modeling has typically utilized either competent peer models or self-models engaging in criterion performances. Although both methods have demonstrated utility in achieving skill acquisition, each has potential disadvantages. The current research utilized a multiple probe design across tasks and replicated across participants in order to demonstrate the efficacy of an instructional video modeling technique to teach functional living skills to three children with autism. Five tasks were selected. Prior to the development of each training video, task analyses were created. Videotapes were developed from the participant's viewing perspective, that is, as the participant would be viewing the task. Instructional video modeling was effective in promoting skill acquisition across all three children and maintained during the postvideo phase and a 1-month follow up.

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One of the most salient concerns of parents of children with autism, as well as parents of children with other disabilities, is whether or not their child will live a safe, productive, and independent life. Individuals acquiring independence early in life have more potential to thrive in domestic and vocational settings (Pierce & Schreibman, 1994). Increased attention has been focused on teaching children with disabilities functional behaviors such as daily living skills, which may include preparing simple meals, household chores, and getting dressed. The acquisition of these skills can decrease some of the burden placed on parents and caregivers due to the time and energy required to perform these tasks for the child. There is a vital need for teaching strategies that are specifically designed for individuals with autism to help foster their independence.

Observational learning, defined as a result of observing the behavior of a model (Bandura, 1968), constitutes an important learning and teaching strategy that has received a significant amount of attention in the literature. Learning through observation and imitation of others can account for the natural acquisition of behavior (Bandura, 1971) and the planned acquisition of skills through directed observation (Brody, Lahey, & Combs, 1978). The concept of observational learning through modeling was first introduced in the 1960s. Since Bandura and his colleagues' seminal work, abundant research has documented and extended the effects of modeling (Bandura & Menlove, 1968; Barry & Overmann, 1977; Buggey, Toombs, Gardener, & Cervitti, 1999; Charlop, Schreibman, & Tyron, 1983; Charlop & Walsh, 1986; Coleman & Stedman, 1974; Egel, Richman, & Koegel, 1981; Haring, Kennedy, Adams, & Pitts-Conway, 1987; Lutzker & Sherman, 1974). Studies on observational learning were originally focused on typical children, but soon this phenomenon was investigated in children with disabilities. For example, observational learning has been identified as an effective instructional component in the acquisition of early language (Egel et al., 1981; Goldstein & Mousetis, 1989; Lovaas, Beberich, Perloff, & Schaeffer, 1966), appropriate play skills (Elliot & Vasta, 1970), motor skill development (Baer, Peterson, & Sherman, 1967), self-help skills (Hall, Schuster, Wolery, Gast, & Doyle, 1972; Schoen & Sivil, 1989), sight words (Orlove, 1982), symbol recognition (Oliver, 1983), and vocabulary words (Hanley-Maxwell, Wilcox, & Heal, 1982). For individuals with developmental disabilities, learning through observation may be an especially important strategy because functioning in mainstream educational settings often demands skills that have not yet been learned (Buggey et al., 1999).

Advances in technology have afforded researchers the opportunity to expand on the concept of observational learning through modeling with individuals with developmental disabilities. One such technological advance has been the use of video as a tool to teach a wide variety of skills, including motor behaviors as in sport skill acquisition (Franks & Maile, 1991), appropriate sexual behaviors (Dowrick & Ward, 1997), conversation skills (Charlop & Milstein, 1989; Pierce, Sherer, Paredes, Kisacky, & Schreibman, 1999), vocational skills (Cavaiuolo & Gradel, 1990), social behaviors (Kern et al., 1995; Taylor, Levin, & Jasper, 1999), and safety skills (Poche, Yoder, & Miltenberger, 1988). Video has also been effective in treating anxiety (Johnson, 1989), depression (Kahn, Kehle, Jenson, & Clark, 1990), stuttering, and selective mutism (Kehle, 1991).

Participants in video modeling research have varied from typically developing persons to individuals with severe disabilities. However, there has been limited attention regarding video intervention for children with autism who typically exhibit severe attentional (Courchesne et al., 1994; Pierce, Glad, & Schreibman, 1997), social (Pierce & Schreibman, 1995), affective (Hobson, Ouston, & Lee, 1988), language and communication (Rutter, 1978), and motivational deficits. Often these significant pitfalls make children with autism a challenging population to teach. Video modeling may be an effective instructional approach because it can counteract the effects of stimulus overselectivity, defined as an attentional deficit that involves the failure to utilize all of the important cues in an educational setting (Koegel et al., 1989). By minimizing attentional requirements, requiring the child only to look at a small spatial area (a television monitor), and to hear only the minimum necessary language, children are more able to direct their focus to relevant stimuli (Sherer et al., 2001). This procedure can increase independence by reducing the need for the presence of a skilled adult to promote learning. In addition, motivation may be enhanced because video viewing is a low-demand activity found in most children's homes and appears to be naturally reinforcing to children.

Some children with autism tend to excel in response to visual interventions. Through the use of activity schedules, Pierce and Schreibman (1994) successfully taught daily living skills to children with autism in unsupervised settings. There are also numerous accounts of special savant skills in children with autism, including memories for directions and special artistic abilities (e.g., O'Connor & Hermelin, 1990).

Only a few studies have investigated the effectiveness of video interventions for children with autism, the majority of which have focused on teaching social behaviors and increasing language skills. Charlop and Milstein (1989) taught three children with autism to make simple exchanges in conversation. Their research was systematically replicated by Taylor et al. (1999) to increase play-related statements in children with autism toward their siblings. Buggey et al. (1999) used video self-modeling as a tool to teach children with autism appropriate responding to questions.

Sherer et al. (2001) compared the efficacy of "self" versus "other" video modeling interventions to teach question-asking to children with autism. Two types of videos were introduced. The self-as-a-model video consisted of children viewing themselves as the videotaped model, whereas in the other modeling condition peer models were shown demonstrating the particular skill. There were no overall differences in rate of task acquisition between the two conditions. Anecdotal evidence suggested that participants who…