The Influence of a Process Versus an Outcome Orientation on Tennis Performance and Knowledge.

The purpose of this study was to compare the effects of a process orientation (imaging planning, organizing, and preparing) versus an outcome orientation ('imaging doing well on tests,) on tennis skills and written tests. Participants were 76 university students enrolled in three elective tennis classes and randomly assigned to a process, outcome, or control condition. Dependent measures included skills (e.g., performance,) and written (e.g., knowledge) tests. Data were collected in a pre-post design and analyzed with separate 3 x 2 (Group x Test) repeated measures ANOVAs. A significant Group x Test interaction was found for the skills test. Post-hoc tests indicated that the process and outcome groups improved significantly, with the process group outperforming the other two groups at post-test. For the written test, all groups improved significantly from pre- to post-test, but no group differences were exhibited at post-test. Findings offer preliminary support for the importance of visualizing what it takes to achieve, at least for tennis performance, versus merely imaging the experience of doing well.

Of growing significance in recent years is the realization of the powerful impact of self-management or self-regulation skills on feeling good about oneself and achieving at some undertaking. In the sport psychology arena, a growing body of literature has indicated the efficacy of a variety of techniques to facilitate changes in behavior, aid the learning process, as well as improve performance.

As defined by Zimmerman (1989), self-regulated learning refers to the process by which individuals exercise control over their thinking, affect, and behavior as they acquire knowledge and skills. According to Carver and Scheier's (1998) theory of behavioral self-regulation, behavior is goal-directed, providing form and structure to a person's life, It also offers a framework within which action takes place. One of the central themes of this theory is that more effective people move toward their goals via discrepancy reducing feedback loops. Present behaviors or qualities are determined, assessed as to whether they are the ones intended or desired, and if not, adjustments are attempted that serve to bring one into line with the other. Carver and Scheier further suggest that the concept of feedback can also be combined with the assumption of a hierarchy of control processes.

With regard to goal-setting and achievement, Gould (1998) has stated that goals are effective because they influence psychological states such as self-confidence, direct attention to important aspects of the task, mobilize effort, increase persistence, and foster the development of new learning strategies. Sport psychology research on goal-setting has primarily involved comparing performance and outcome goals with regard to task achievement and persistence. Performance or mastery goals are associated with improvement and intrinsic motivation. They are presumably better than outcome, or ego, goals that emphasize winning and beating others (Burton, 1989). Both types are centered toward setting goals for achieving, but with different orientations.

From another perspective related to goal-setting, individuals often fail to consider organizing and planning activities, as well as time-management, in order to accomplish in some endeavor. Without goals for serious preparation and time-commitment, achievement is highly unlikely. Whereas sport psychology researchers have neglected this area, some scholars (e.g., Taylor, Pham, Rivkin, & Armor, 1998) …