'Soldaderas' and the staging of the Mexican Revolution.

Si Adelita se fuera con otro

la seguiria por tierra y por mar.

Si por mar en un buque de guerra

Si por tierra en un tren militar.

Adelita, por Dios te lo ruego,

calma el fuego de esta mi pasion,

porque te amo y te quiero rendido

y por ti sufre mi fiel corazon.(2)

If Adelita should go with another

I would follow her over land and sea.

If by sea in a battleship

If by land on a military train.

Adelita, for God's sake I beg you,

calm the fire of my passion,

because I love you and I cannot resist it

and my faithful heart suffers for you.(3)

"La Adelita" was one of the most popular songs of the Mexican Revolution (1910-1920). According to some sources (see Soto 1990:44), this ballad was originally inspired by a Durangan woman who had joined the Maderista movement4 at an early age. Troubadours made the song -- and Adelita herself -- a popular emblem of the revolution. As Baltasar Dromundo put it, "las guitarras de todas partes se iban haciendo eruditas en ese canto hasta que por fin la Revolucion hizo de ella su verdadero emblema nacional" (guitarists from all over were becoming experts in that song and it became the true emblem of the Revolution) (1936:40). Significantly, Adelita's surname, as well as the family names of many other soldaderas (soldier-women), remained virtually unknown. However, the popular songs composed in honor of these women contributed enormously to their fame and to documenting their role in the Revolution. Shirlene Soto has pointed out that: "Two heroines of the Revolution, Adelita and Valentina, were considered `the essence of Mexican femininity,' and the corridos written to honor them had widespread popularity" (1990:44).(5) Over time, Adelita's name was used to refer to any female soldier who participated in the Mexican Revolution, so that "Adelita" gradually became synonymous with "soldadera." Today, among women in both Mexico and the U.S., Adelita is a symbol of action and inspiration, and her name is used to mean any woman who struggles and fights for her rights.

But almost from the beginning, the song and the role of its subject have been given different, often conflicting, interpretations. As the battle hymn of Pancho Villa's troops, "La Adelita" expressed the sensitivity and vulnerability of men, emphasizing the stoicism of the rebellious male soldier as he confronts the prospect of death:

Si supieras que ha muerto tu amante,

rezaras por mi una oracion,

por el hombre que supo adorarte

con el alma, vida y corazon. (Dromundo 1936:39)(6)

If you find out your lover has died,

say a prayer for me,

for the man who adored you

with his soul, life, and heart.

Here, the speaking subject of "La Adelita" feels sorrowful at the prospect of dying in combat and never seeing his beloved again, but he accepts his likely death after expressing his love. In this guise, "La Adelita" is a song of hope, based on virility, and the name Adelita becomes a metaphor for love in times of war. Similarly, in other versions of the song analyzed by the feminist scholar Maria Herrara-Sobek, Adelita's bravery and revolutionary spirit are lost to the fatalism and insecurities of male soldiers who are focused on passions, love, and desire as they face combat:

Recordando aquel sargento sus quereres

los soldados que volvian de la guerra

ofreciendole su amor a las mujeres

entonaban este himno de la guerra. (1990:107)

The sergeant was remembering his loved ones

when the soldiers were returning from the battle

offering their love to the women

they would sing this song of war.

"La Adelita" is a composition that stages gender relations within their interrelated subjectivities. In situating "La Adelita" as the focus of my text, I discuss the narrative and subject position of the protagonist as a soldadera of the Mexican Revolution. Throughout this essay, as I employ the tools of literary criticism, textual analysis, and historical interpretation to gain a deeper understanding of the problematic identity of the soldier-woman Adelita, I am guided by insights from the work of contemporary feminist scholars. just as Anna Macias, Clara Lomas, Maria Herrera-Sobek, and Shirlene Soto have attempted to reconstruct the dynamic participation of women in various contexts during the Mexican Revolution, so in this work I attempt to construct and deconstruct romantic notions of the revolutionary subject in the contexts of culture, and specifically drama, as I examine how the soldadera has been variously represented and misrepresented. Adelita, whether in popular songs or in plays, represents a contested paradigm that demands further critical reflection.

I begin my analysis by discussing the narrative included in Baltasar Dromundo's 1936 book, Francisco Villa y La Adelita, in which "La Adelita" is presented as a major figure among the troops of General Francisco Villa. I also analyze Josefina Niggli's play Soldadera, which she wrote about the same time that Dromundo's book was released.(7) Niggli's drama stages the participation of women in the Mexican Revolution, characterizing Adela, the protagonist of "La Adelita," as a hero of the Revolution. In both works, Adelita is presented as a soldier, but in Dromundo's book, the central tension involves the age-old equation of male power with superiority and female subordination with inferiority. Niggli preserves Adelita's bravery but undermines her position by attributing to the heroine overwhelming naivete and romantic idealism.

Clearly, Adelita's identity, in particular her subjectivity as a soldier of the Revolution, has been shaped and reshaped many times and in many contexts. Thus the aim of this study is to trace the connections between these various treatments of Adelita and the gender and power relations embedded in the larger social, political, and cultural environment.

Adelita As an Object of Desire

Si Adelita quisiera ser mi esposa,

Si Adelita fuera mi mujer,

le compraria un vestido de seda

para llevarla a bailar al cuartel. (Dromundo 1936:38)

If Adelita wanted to be my wife,

If Adelita would be my woman,

I would buy her a silk dress

to take her dancing at the barracks.

In his short book, Francisco Villa y La Adelita, Baltasar Dromundo uses folklore as a source of information about two legendary figures: General Francisco Villa, the leader of powerful revolutionary troops in the northern state of Chihuahua and a champion of agrarian reform; and Adelita, a soldier-woman whose beauty and courageous acts during the Revolution attracted much attention. Dromundo includes a version of "La Adelita" that he maintains is the original composition of an anonymous troubadour of the Mexican Revolution. He presents the story of Adelita, narrating a significant event in her life and dramatizing the situation by combining his prose with dialogue between the protagonists Adelita and Francisco Villa. As a text within a text, the musical composition increases the dramatic tension of the story Dromundo presents:

Ya no llores, querida Adelita,

ya no llores, querida mujer,

no te muestres ingrata conmigo,

ya no me hagas tanto padecer.(39)

Don't cry anymore, my beloved Adelita,

don't cry anymore, my beloved woman,

don't be hardhearted with me,

don't make me suffer anymore.

In Dromundo's book, Adelita is described as a nortena (a woman from the north) who is a beautiful and courageous soldier, but also a "heartbreaker." She is depicted as a major figure among the followers of Francisco Villa. According to Dromundo's anecdote, the day the General first noticed Adelita, she had been selected to give the speech at a banquet held in his honor. Adelita was at that point romantically involved with Francisco Portillo (also known as el guero), who was regarded as one of Pancho Villa's most courageous dorados.(8) Villa, unaware of Adelita and Portillo's romance, found the young woman's beauty and sagacious personality irresistible. That the General then followed up his feelings with immediate action was not surprising since Villa was reputed to be a passionate and daring man -- and a womanizer.

In Dromundo's rendition, while Villa and Adelita are having a conversation, the General suddenly grabs her violently and kisses her: "Cerca de la puerta se detuvo Villa y bruscamente tomo a Adelita entre sus brazos y la beso" (Near the door, Villa stopped and violently grabbed Adelita in his arms and kissed her)(36). Although this scenario is absurdly romantic, in its melodrama it resembles images from commercial films produced in Mexico since the 1930s, in which the beautiful senorita is always seduced, conquered, and loved -- or "dishonored" -- by a handsome charro. More significantly, in Dromundo's anecdote, gender relations are indirectly problematized so that domination comes to determine the protagonists' interrelated subjectivity. Moreover, this narrative encapsulates the manly power of a nation that subordinates the female subject, a symbolic paradigm of colonization. After the Spanish conquest of Mexico, the subordination of women, already instituted in both countries, was reinforced by attitudes regarding caste and race. Anna Macias asserts that:

Undoubtedly machismo ("extreme male dominance") and its counterpart,

hembrismo ("extreme female submission"), have been pervasive in

Mexico, in part because of the Aztec subordination of women and even

more because of the Spanish colonial experience. (1982:3)

Dromundo constructs a very dramatic text in order to explain the situation that links Adelita with General Villa. The central event in Dromundo's narrative in which Villa imposes his power and strength on Adelita -- is easily interconnected with the larger narrative of machismo and sexism in which the male protagonist imposes his power and maleness on a female. In my reading of Villa's imposition, representations of superiority and inferiority in relation to gender differences and sexual power are central. Villa's compulsive behavior is an affirmation of his superiority; Adelita's submission is inevitable. The physical and metaphysical force evident in Villa's action is self-explanatory: "It is force without the discipline of any notion of order: arbitrary power, the will without reins …