A test of the trans-contextual model of motivation in Greek high school pupils.(Report)

Research evidence has documented the positive effect of regular vigorous physical activity on the physical (Gilliam & MacConnie, 1985) and mental health (Callas & Taylor, 1994) of young people. However, there is also considerable body of research highlighting that young people in industrialized societies do not engage in sufficient physical activity thought to promote health (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2003). This has led to the publication of a number of recommendations regarding desirable levels of physical activity children and adolescents (Sallis & Patrick, 1994). Health professionals involved in developing campaigns and curricula to promote physical activity in young people have sought to develop effective interventions to increase physical activity levels in young people. The use of existing networks such as school physical education (PE) is considered crucial in this regard (Fox & Biddle, 1989). PE is an ideal context in which children and adolescents can learn more about healthy lifestyles, particularly physical activity. Campaigns promoting physical activity need to be oriented about theoretical research to identify the salient predictors of physical activity participation in young people (Biddle, Gorely, & Stensel, 2004). Current research is focused on the theoretical approaches that describe the mechanisms that influence motivation for participation in physical activity (Hagger & Chatzisarantis, in press; Vallerand, 2007).

An important question raised from research concerns whether factors affecting motivation in PE could increase motives for participation in physical activities during leisure-time (Ntoumanis, 2005; Standage, Duda, & Ntoumanis, 2003). The present study aims to address this question by adopting an integrated theory of motivation, known as the trans-contextual model (Hagger, Chatzisarantis, Culverhouse, & Biddle, 2003). According to this model, school pupils' perceptions that their PE teacher supports their autonomy during lessons are positively related to their motivation in a PE context but also motivation to engage in physical activities in their leisure-time outside of school. In order to understand this complex motivational sequence, the trans-contextual model integrates hypotheses from three theories of motivation; self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985), the hierarchical model of intrinsic motivation (Vallerand, 2007), and the theory of planned behavior (Ajzen, 1985). The subsequent sections will outline the major theories and then illustrate how they can provide complimentary explanations of the proposed motivational sequence.

Self-determination Theory

The central tenet of self-determination theory is the distinction between self-determined or autonomous and non-serf-determined or controlled forms of motivation (Deci & Ryan, 1985, 2000). The experience of autonomous is characterized by a sense of personal origin, self-regulation, and a sense that one's actions are fully endorsed by the self. Important outcomes of autonomous functioning are perceptions of interest, enjoyment, satisfaction and a sense of choice. Behaviors that people engage in for autonomous motives are those that satisfy the basic needs for autonomy, competence and relatedness. On the other hand, people that act for controlled reasons engage in behavior but feel tension and conflict with their behavior and perceptions. This typically arises because their actions are contingent on external reinforcers such as obtaining rewards or avoiding punishment or internal conflicts, such as perceptions of obligation or guilt. Importantly, autonomous forms of motivation are associated with behavioral persistence and adaptive outcomes while controlled motives are akin to desistance, avoidance, and maladaptive outcomes. Several reviews and recta-analyses have illustrated that autonomous forms of motivation are associated with increased effort, persistence, and satisfaction among individuals engaging in tasks in physical activity contexts (Cbatzisarantis, Hagger, Biddle, Smith, & Wang, 2003; Hagger & Chatzisarantis, 2008).

Hierarchical Model of Intrinsic Motivation

Vallerand (2007) adopted several aspects of the self-determination theory and developed a hierarchical model of intrinsic motivation. This model focuses on the role of environment and motivation at different levels of generality to describe the consequences or outcomes of motivated behavior (Vallerand, 2007). According to the model, global motivation lies at the apex of the hierarchy. Global motives are general, stable, represent motivational dispositions, and reflect the basic needs for self-determination or autonomy. Global motives are thought to influence motivation in many different contexts in a top-down fashion (Guay, Mageau, & Vallerand, 2003).

Motivation at the contextual level is located at an intermediate level in the hierarchy, subordinate to global motivation, and represents motivation in specific contexts, such as the academic, social, and physical contexts. These motives are less stable and can be influenced by external factors (social and environmental) as top-down effects from global level motives. An important prediction of the model for the contextual level is the interaction between different contexts (Vallerand, 2007). For example, intrinsic motives in an academic context (i.e., motivation in PE) could be transferred as intrinsic motives in a social or sport context (i.e., leisure motivation).