Life satisfaction, self-esteem, and subjective age in women across the life span.(Report)

A study of 320 women, ages 21 to 69, explored the relations among relationship status, subjective age, self-esteem, and life satisfaction. Women in married or partnered relationships had higher levels of life satisfaction than did single women. Women in their 30s and 40s had significantly lower levels of life satisfaction than did other age groups.

**********

Recent population estimates place the number of baby boomers between 40 and 60 years of age at approximately 78 million (American Association of Retired Persons, 2004). As the average age of the U.S. population increases, it is imperative for mental health professionals to be prepared to meet the needs of a maturing population. Although it may be expected that theory and understanding of adult development during these years are well formed, there is a noticeable gap in the existing literature related to the development of midlife women (Degges-White & Myers, 2006a). In part, this may be attributed to the fact that midlife is a relatively new phase of life that emerged as a result of increased longevity and the trend for a couple to spend a significant portion of their life together after their children have achieved independence (Quadagno, 2001, as cited in Degges-White & Myers, 2006a). Although strides have been made in increasing the understanding of midlife women's physiological development (Finkler, 2007), specifically regarding menopause, much less research has been concerned with nonbiological changes that occur in midlife women's attitudes and feelings.

The mass media have become a growing source of information about women's midlife transitions, especially the menopause transition (Carlson, Li, & Holm, 1997; Gannon & Stevens, 1998); however, the facts presented are often highly colored by editorial opinion. With few empirically supported theoretical paradigms of women's midlife development (Degges-White & Myers, 2006a), mental health professionals may feel unprepared to serve this population and women may be unsure about what is "normal." Unfortunately, the media and our society in general tend to hold and promote many negative stereotypes regarding aging, such as the widely broadcast belief that signs of aging are problems that require correction. These messages may negatively influence women's attitudes and feelings both about themselves and the aging process as well as their overall well-being (Chornesky, 1998; McQuaide, 1998). Mental health professionals need sound information about this population to help women navigate this phase of life and to help them offset these negative messages. It is important to expand the research and understanding of women at midlife in an effort to generate improved theories of midlife development.

LIFE SATISFACTION

Because women are often reminded by the media and culture that aging is a foe, maturing women may feel uncomfortable and ill at ease during their middle years. An individual's level of life satisfaction, the temporal measure of the amount of happiness people feel in their life at a specific moment, may be negatively influenced by these messages. In fact, Ryff (1989) concluded that the midlife years are times of changing roles and identity ambiguity and that these processes in themselves often affect women's life satisfaction. Some researchers have presented evidence suggesting that midlife women are maladjusted, have lower levels of well-being, and a have a higher risk of suicide (Girard, 1993; Waskel & Phelps, 1995). Other research has found that midlife is not necessarily a negative time in women's lives. For example, Degges-White and Myers (2006b) found that women who have supportive people in their life may experience greater life satisfaction than do those who live a more solitary life. A friendship network or the presence of a confidant have both been noted for their importance to women's mental health (Baruch & Brooks-Gunn, 1984). Howell (2001) explored the experiences of midlife women and found that participants in her study emphasized the importance of relationships, as evidenced by the amount of time focus group participants devoted to this topic and the high percentage of participants who engaged in discussion of relationships. Howell concluded that the discussion in her focus group sessions supported Gilligan's (1982) argument that relationships are particularly important for women. On the basis of the existing literature, it appears that social support networks, and friendships in particular, are important to midlife women's well-being. However, the types of relationship and the extent to which they shape life satisfaction are still unknown, as are the role of other factors that may influence the overall well-being of women.

Other factors that have been identified as potentially enhancing to midlife women's well-being or life satisfaction include a broad range of variables, such as income, relationship status, and education (Diener, Suh, & Oishi, 1997; McQuaide, 1998). McQuaide found that in addition to having a confidant or group of friends, an annual income above $30,000 and positive feelings about one's appearance were predictive of midlife women's well-being. Diener et al. (1997) noted that the variables of income, education, and well-being typically have a direct correlation with life satisfaction. In a more recent study that focused specifically on midlife women, Degges-White and Myers (2006b) found mixed results related to these factors. They found that although overall well-being and income were positively related to life satisfaction, menopausal status was not related to life satisfaction, nor was level of education. However, similar to the findings reported by McQuaide on the role of positive feelings about oneself, Degges-White and Myers (2006b) found that women who had positive self-perceptions also had higher levels of life satisfaction. These findings suggest that self-esteem directly influences life satisfaction.