Measuring learned resourcefulness in college students: factor structure of the self-control schedule (SCS).(Report)

Rosenbaum's Self-Control Schedule (SCS) has been used as a unidimensional measure of Learned Resourcefulness (LR) in previous research. In this study we clarified the factor structure of the SCS among college students (N = 583) by conducting a principal axis factor analysis with oblique (Oblimin) rotation on the SCS. Results revealed a three-factor solution that accounted for 36.37% of the total variance, indicating the potential of the measure to assess three theoretically consistent aspects of LR, labeled as Planful Behavior, Coping Efficacy, and Affective Thought Management. Implications for college counseling practice and research are discussed

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Learned resourcefulness (LR) is a repertoire of well-learned behaviors and cognitive skills that individuals acquire throughout their lives to cope effectively with stressful life events and to successfully execute self-control behaviors (Rosenbaum, 1983, 1990). Individuals with effective LR skills are able to regulate (i.e., cognitively self-control) the disruptive effects of negative internal events, such as disturbing emotions like depression and anxiety, negative cognitions and self-statements, phobic reactions, and physical pain (Rosenbaum, 1990). LR does not refer to the absence of negative thoughts and feelings, but suggests that such negative thoughts and feelings can be modified and self-regulated in order to minimize their negative consequences. For example, a student who is able to delay his/her gratification when faced with a task, such as studying before going to a movie, or who can effectively solve a problem, such as review his/her lack of friendships due to being in a new college environment and then make a plan to meet others through different social events, is utilizing LR skills. The cognitive strategies and interpretations that the individual uses to help see both of these events as challenges to overcome, rather than uncontrollable stressors, reflect some of the self-control skills of LR.

Behaviors are considered LR skills if: (a) they are cued by an internal event and (b) they reduce or eliminate the interfering effects that a negative internal event has on the performance of some target behavior (Rosenbaum, 1983). The LR skill set, as defined by Rosenbaum (1990), falls along three dimensions: reformative self-control, redressive self-control, and perceived self-efficacy for coping. He described reformative self-control as the skills for effective problem solving and as strategies for postponing the need for instant gratification. Redressive self-control involves the use of positive self-instructions for thought, mood, and pain control. Finally, perceived self-efficacy for coping involves belief in the effectiveness of one's own coping skills when faced with stressful situations. Research has indicated that the self-control skills of LR can be learned and increased through conditioning, modeling, and instruction (Rosenbaum, 1983).

Learned resourcefulness has also been associated with a variety of variables and treatment outcomes. For instance, it has been associated with better coping with life stressors (Antonovsky, 1990) and better coping with traumatic experiences (Frederick, 1990). It has been found to play a positive mediating effect in drug and alcohol use (Flett, Hewitt, Blankstein, & O'Brien, 1991), but has been less helpful in mediating smoking behavior and attempts at smoking cessation (Carey, Carey, Carnrike, & Meisler, 1990). It is also associated with better management of physical pain and chronic medical conditions (Benedito & Botella, 1991; Rosenbaum, 1990). More specific to college students, LR has been related to loneliness and self-esteem (McWhirter, 1997), and one study revealed that students with high LR experienced much less stress before and after mid-term examinations and were better able to utilize their LR skills at times of greatest stress in comparison to students with low LR (Gintner, West, & Zarski, 1989). Similarly, LR has been found to moderate the relationship between academic stress and academic performance; students with high LR do not experience the negative consequences (poor grades) of academic stress while students with low LR do receive lower grades when they experience higher academic stress (Akgun & Ciarrochi, 2003). Finally, in depression treatment, some studies have found that individuals with higher LR exhibit greater treatment recovery from severe depression (e.g., Burns, Rude, Simons, Bates, & Thase, 1994), while other studies have failed to clearly reveal a significant statistical contribution of LR in treatment success (e.g., Wetzel, Murphy, Carney, & Whitworth, 1992). Discrepant findings such as these and the potential role that LR may play in helping individuals cope and thrive in their environments, support the need to further examine this construct.

The skills of LR are most commonly assessed by the Self-Control Schedule (SCS; Rosenbaum, 1980, 1990). The SCS was develop and has been used typically as a unidimensional measure in previous research, but its utility may be enhanced if the SCS possesses subscales that measure potentially distinct aspects of learned resourcefulness. As such, clarifying the factorial structure of the SCS might help to illustrate exactly what cognitive and behavioral skills are measured by this instrument, and clarify how these skills relate to LR. Prior factor analytic studies of the SCS have yielded diverse findings about the underlying latent structure of this measure. For example, Redden, Tucker, and Young (1983) factor analyzed the SCS with a college student sample (n = 984) and identified a six-factor structure for both males and females in their study. They concluded that further work should be conducted to clarify the utility and interpretability of the SCS factor structure. In another study, Rude (1989) identified a five-factor structure for the measure with a sample of dysphoric women (n = 148). In related research, Zauszniewski (1995) factor analyzed the SCS using a sample of depressed (n = 63) and non-depressed (n = 63) male and female adults, and identified a three-factor structure for both samples (i.e., depressed, non-depressed) that were similar to the theoretical constructs of LR ...