Variation in the prediction of cross-cultural adjustment by ethnic density: a longitudinal study of Taiwanese students in the United States.(Report)

This study was partially supported by a faculty research grant from the University of California, Berkeley to the first author.

The study examined variation in the prediction of adjustment in Taiwanese students by ethnic density. A total of 155 Taiwanese students were assessed via survey pre-departure and three times post-arrival in the United States. Hierarchical regression analysis showed students on campuses with fewer other Taiwanese peers formed more friendships with Americans and developed greater English competence by the second semester than those on campuses with more Taiwanese students. Furthermore, homesickness, affiliation with Americans, and English competence in the second semester predicted functional adjustment in the third semester among students at moderate ethnic density schools, while baseline English competence alone predicted adjustment in students on high ethnic density campuses. Implications for facilitating cross-cultural adjustment are discussed.

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At the turn of the 21st century, more people than ever before are living cross-culturally. In the United States alone, 12% of its population is foreign-born (U.S. Bureau of Census, 2006). The available literature on cross-cultural adjustment has often focused primarily on personal factors, neglecting the contribution of the environmental context. However, the United States is a pluralistic nation, with communities varying significantly on ethnic composition. Recent research suggests that access to members of the same ethnic group significantly impacts the behavior and adjustment of immigrants (Logan, Zhang, & Alba, 2002; Schnittker, 2002). Furthermore, although the adjustment to cross-cultural living involves an extended process, most of the available research has utilized a cross-sectional design (Church, 1982; Pedersen, 1995). Very few longitudinal studies have been launched pre-departure and followed large numbers of individuals during the process of cross-cultural living (Ying, 2002, 2005; Ying & Han, 2006; Zheng & Berry, 1991). The current study contributes to the existing literature by examining whether ethnic density impacts the predictors of longitudinal cross-cultural adjustment among Taiwanese students in the United States.

Worldwide, over a million students are engaged in international study, with half of them residing in the United States (Institute of International Education, 2007). Notably, the top five sending nations are all Asian: India, China, Korea, Japan, and Taiwan (Institute of International Education, 2007). As Taiwan is by far the smallest country among these, its students are over-represented in the U.S. Due to the significant cultural gap between Asia and the United States, their adjustment may be especially challenging (Berry, 1997). While the number of graduates returning to Taiwan has been on the rise since the mid 1980's, a sizeable group still elects to remain and become the newest Americans (Chang, 1988; Pedersen et al., 1990). Understanding the process of their cross-cultural adjustment is important and holds implications for service delivery. Below we discuss the conceptual framework that informs the current study, key concepts examined, and the research hypotheses.

Theoretical Framework: Ethnic Density and Cross-Cultural Adjustment

Ecological theorists have long viewed adjustment as a state of equilibrium that results from optimal person-environment fit (Bronfenbrenner, 1979; French, Rodgers, & Cobb, 1974). During periods of transition marked by significant alteration in the environmental context and the individual's roles, this fit is disrupted (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). The consequent psychological disequilibration motivates efforts to restore adjustment and engenders growth (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). Cross-cultural living entails such a transition, where the new context is likely to differ significantly from the previous one physically, politically, socially, and culturally (Berry, 1997), and the newcomer finds herself in a different role, that of a stranger, an outsider, a minority (Pedersen, 1980). Consequently, she suffers psychological disequilibration, which is sometimes so severe as to be termed "culture shock" (Oberg, 1960) and precipitates a process to restore person-environment fit, i.e., adjustment.