Development of a culturally specific career exploration group for urban Chinese immigrant youth.(Effective Techniques)

A rapid increase in the number of Chinese immigrants and the specific challenges faced by low-income Chinese immigrant youth attending urban schools warrant culturally sensitive school-based interventions and services. However, research and services are limited for this population because of cultural biases in traditional career theories and the "model minority" myth suggesting that Asian students are excelling. The authors developed and implemented a culturally specific career exploration group for low-income Chinese immigrant youth to address their career concerns with respect to multiple social and cultural factors and to provide social support. Implications for future program development and research are provided.

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The workforce in the United States has become increasingly racially and ethnically diverse. The 2000 U.S. census reports that individuals 18 years of age or younger were more likely to identify with two or more racial/ethnic minority affiliations (U.S. Bureau of the Census, n.d.-a, n.d.-b). The greatest increase in number was among Asian American/Pacific Islander and Latino/Hispanic populations; both higher immigration rates and fertility rates may have contributed to the rapid growth in these racial groups (Fouad & Byars-Winston, 2005).

The growing number of immigrants and racial/ethnic minorities joining the workforce warrant context- or culturally sensitive career counseling, which acknowledges the impact of clients' family context, cultural values, and social environments on their career behavior (Pope, 2003). However, traditional career theories are typically normed on White middle-class American men and emphasize individualistic culture (i.e., reverence for autonomy; equality of vocational opportunity; freedom and economic affluence to make a career choice; linear, progressive, and rational career making and development progress); consequently, these theories often ignore the sociopolitical realities faced by many racial/ethnic minorities (Carter & Cook, 1992; Cook, Heppner, & O'Brien, 2002) and contradict their worldviews and career experiences (Fouad & Bingham, 1995).

For instance, many recent Asian immigrants encounter employment discrimination because of their limited English fluency. Despite their previous professional or career status, they are deterred from entering the mainstream economy where English is an essential tool of communication. As a result, they may become unemployed or underemployed or be forced to find a job in their ethnic enclave economy that is below their previously acquired skill or education level (Chow, 1999). In this case, their career paths do not necessarily follow a linear, progressive trend nor are the paths based on their educational level, work experience, or freedom to choose whatever they want to pursue. Instead, their career paths are affected by their immigration experience, limited English proficiency, and cultural barriers.

To acknowledge cultural diversity and take into account the worldviews, sociocultural realities, life experiences, and multiple identities of clients, the social ecological view of work and career asserts that individuals' career behavior does not develop in a vacuum but rather through interactions between individuals and their social systems (Cook et al., 2002). This theoretical perspective is particularly important in understanding the career exploration experiences of racial/ethnic minorities, whose career discourse is often disrupted by powerful and pervasive institutional barriers (e.g., racism, discrimination at work, limited access to educational opportunities and labor markets) and whose work decisions are often shaped by their family's worldview and cultural values (Fouad & Brown, 2000).

The influence of family may be especially salient in Asian communities, which emphasize interdependence and group reliance. Familial influence often entails attending to collective, familial expectation and making decisions that are congruent with that expectation (Fiske, Kitayama, Markus, & Nisbett, 1998). For example, an Asian American woman who wishes to pursue a career in politics may be discouraged by her family because of the racial and gender segregation of the occupation. Her parents may think that what is required for becoming a successful politician (e.g., assertiveness, outspokenness) in the United States is contradictory to what is valued in Asian culture (e.g., modesty, politeness). Hence, career counseling for racial/ethnic minorities is more effective and culturally relevant if it examines the intertwining role of both individual and contextual factors as well as acknowledges the importance of cultural and familial views on these clients' career behavior and decision making.