Robert Herrick and the ambiguities of gender.(Critical essay)

Robert Herrick wrote hundreds of poems about real or imagined women. It is generally conceded that his "many fresh and fragrant mistresses" were purely imaginary, but understanding how he constructs gender is vital in developing an accurate view of his poetic art. Modern criticism often depicts Herrick as a propagandist for the received standards of his day, yet close examination of his texts reveals that he recognized the ambiguities of gender and the inconsistencies of his era's beliefs pertaining to women, disrupted and interrogated them, and often engaged in outright parodic critique of accepted seventeenth-century gender mores.

The stance Herrick takes in relation to gender issues is rooted in the double-coding of female presence that already existed in the English Renaissance. On one hand stood the traditional Christian idea that women should be subordinate to men--an idea accepted by Protestants and Catholics alike. In Herrick's society, women were viewed "regardless of social rank, as wives and mothers ... and were considered morally evil, intellectually inferior," and "framed by God only for domestic duties" (Dunn, 15). Female submission was considered essential to an ordered, stable society, so that "as wives were subject to their husbands, so women were subject to men, whose authority was sustained informally through culture, custom and differences in education, and more formally through the law" (Amussen, 3).

Yet within this universally held set of notions about the nature and role of women, hinges, flaws, and contradictions abounded. Neoplatonic thought exalted woman. The cult of the Virgin, Petrarchan love conventions, and the cult of Elizabeth all grew out of this belief in the transcendence of womanhood. And the stringencies of patriarchy, though generally accepted in English society at the time, were qualified by the popular idea of "companionate marriage," which recognized God's grace as operative in women as well as in men and saw this grace as a check against unbridled notions of male superiority and the domination of wives by husbands (McDonald, 260-61).

This contradictory state of affairs was further complicated by the fact that, in contrast to continental Europe, early English society seems to have been exceptional in affording freedoms to women. Many English women were educated and prominent in the period when Herrick wrote his poems, especially at the court of Charles I, where Henrietta Maria "enhanced the status of women by demanding that her courtiers adopt the platonizing attitudes popular at the time in France" (Latt, 40). Herrick would have known the effects of Henrietta Maria's progressive attitude through his contact with the Carolinian court as a chaplain and lyricist before he took up pastoral duties in Devonshire.

Herrick's progressive attitude can be seen in the compositions he addressed not to imaginary mistresses but to real, flesh-and-blood women. His ambiguous attitude, reflecting the uncertainties of his own day, often crops up in these poems. To be sure, women exist as wives and maidens for Herrick, and his attention to them takes the form of sexual attraction in its modified and acceptable version of visual attraction to outward beauty. Yet one often detects an undercurrent of contradictory darkness flowing beneath safe conventions. The women Herrick addresses in his verses are beautiful and fragrant; the poet compares them to goddesses and flowers and lauds them for their good looks and virtue; the imagery he uses suggests the softness and passivity that was also seen as a proper social role for women. But lurking just underneath all of these conventions are the same sorts of "counterplots" that Claude Summers said work to disrupt and undermine Herrick's political poetry (167). While convention operates on the surface of Herrick's poems on women, a great deal of parodic revisionism is simultaneously taking place.

This revisionism is often seen in Herrick's epithalamia. In one he wrote to celebrate the marriage of his friend Clipsby Crew, for example; the title is "A Nuptiall Song, or Epithalamie, on Sir Clipseby Crew and his Lady." The woman is mentioned in the title (and in Herrick's epithalamium to Sir Thomas Southwell) and the poem tends to revolve around her, hardly even mentioning the bridegroom. Epithalamia did tend to emphasize the bride more than the groom, but the almost total exclusion of the bridegroom in these two poems illustrates Herrick's imaginative fixation on women. Herrick has been called prurient, and his propensity to gaze on women and notice the details of their dress and what lay beneath has made many critics uncomfortable. Still, the figuration of a woman in the epithalamium for Clipsby Crew's wedding suggests that Herrick is attracted to writing about women in such a way that the conventions of male dominance and female subservience are at least questioned, if not disrupted entirely.

"A Nuptiall Song, or Epithalamie, on Sir Clipseby Crew and his Lady" mentions the bride in more than half of the stanzas, the groom in only one. Herrick, who does not name the bride in the poem (she was Jane Pulteney), makes her the center of the work. The bridegroom, when he does appear, does not come across particularly well. He shows up in stanza 4 when he first meets the bride, and his reaction is not ideal. Hymen is told to