Effects of repeated readings, error correction, and performance feedback on the fluency and comprehension of middle school students with behavior problems.

This study used a multiple-baseline-across-students design to examine the effects of repeated readings combined with systematic error correction and performance feedback on the reading fluency and comprehension of 4 middle school students attending an outpatient day treatment program for their behavior problems. Additionally, a brief prediction strategy was added to the repeated readings package during the third phase of the study. Results indicated a functional relationship of repeated readings with error correction and performance feedback on increased reading rate for 3 of the 4 students, and decreased errors for all 4 students. Additionally, improvement for both literal and inferential reading was demonstrated by all 4 students. The effects of the prediction component were inconclusive.

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Special educators are beginning to make counterintuitive decisions regarding the instruction of students with emotional and behavior disorders (EBD). Intuitively, these educators might assume that students cannot be taught academic skills until the behavior problems are managed. This assumption has largely guided the educational programming of students with EBD (Gable, Hendrickson, Tonelson, & Van Acker, 2002; Levy & Chard, 2001; Wehby, Lane, & Falk, 2003). Focusing on behavior problems as a first priority has likely contributed to the lopsided distribution of instructional time in EBD classrooms, with minimal time spent addressing academic needs (Vaughn, Levy, Coleman, & Bos, 2002; Wehby et al.). Because students with EBD tend to receive less academic instruction than their nondisabled peers do (Wehby, Symons, & Canale, 1998), they are particularly vulnerable to academic failure, which may further exacerbate their behavior problems. Documented outcomes include high grade retention and drop-out rates, high failure rates on courses and tests, and poor adjustment as adults (Blackorby & Wagner, 1996; Frank, Sitlington, & Carson, 1995). Actually, compared to all other students with and without disabilities, students with EBD are the least likely to be successful in school (Landrum, Tankersley, & Kauffman, 2003).

Even though it is well documented that students with EBD experience high rates of school failure (e.g., Landrum et al., 2003; Levy & Chard, 2001; Trout, Nordess, Pierce, & Epstein, 2003), there has been minimal research on effective interventions for improving their academic performance (Lane et al., 2002; Wehby et al., 2003). In light of the evidence that behavioral disorders and academic achievement are reciprocally linked (Reid, Gonzalez, Nordness, Trout, & Epstein, 2004; Trout et al.), researchers are beginning to direct more attention to addressing academic interventions for students with EBD (Lane et al.).

One academic skill that is especially important for school success is reading proficiency. Given that students with EBD seem particularly vulnerable to reading difficulties (Coleman & Vaughn, 2000; Vaughn et al., 2002), utilizing best practices for teaching reading is critical. One of the key components for attaining reading success, for both students with and without disabilities, is the ability to read fluently (National Reading Panel, 2000; Therrien, 2004). The National Reading Panel describes fluency as the ability to orally read quickly, accurately, and with proper expression. Disfluent readers struggle with word recognition, fail to comprehend various types of text, have little motivation to read, and spend less time reading (Chard, Vaughn, & Tyler, 2002; Mastropieri, Leinart, & Scruggs, 1999; Stanovich, 1986).

Fortunately, researchers have identified critical instructional variables for effectively increasing reading proficiency. Results from reading fluency studies indicate that students should be provided with reading material on their instructional level (Gibb & Wilder, 2002; Scott & Shearer-Lingo, 2002); multiple opportunities for repeated practice (Chard et al., 2002; Coleman & Vaughn, 2000; Scott & Shearer-Lingo; Sutherland et al., 2003); corrective feedback (Chard et al.; National Reading Panel, 2000; Therrien, 2004); and a way to monitor progress (Gibb & Wilder; Scott & Shearer-Lingo). The most often-used intervention to improve reading fluency is repeated readings (Kuhn & Stahl, 2003; Therrien). Repeated readings require that the student orally read a passage several times during each session. For each successive reading, the student tries to increase the number of words read per min (Samuels, 1979). Repeated reading has been demonstrated to increase oral reading rate, accuracy, and comprehension for students with and without disabilities in elementary, middle, and high school (Mastropieri et al., 1999; Therrien).

Scott and Shearer-Lingo (2002) examined the effects of a repeated readings intervention, using the Great Leaps (Mercer & Campbell, 1998) program, on the reading rate and the on-task behavior of three seventh graders with EBD. The Great Leaps program consisted of 1-min daily timings of letter sounds, phrases, and brief stories. Each student was provided with individual instruction during 10-min sessions and repeatedly read the same lessons each day. After reaching a criterion reading rate, students moved on to the next lesson. Each new lesson began with a review of errors from the previous lesson. All three students showed distinct increasing trends in reading proficiency with at least moderate gains in reading rate. The greatest increase in mean reading rate was 21 words per minute (WPM) in baseline to 85 WPM at the end of the study. Additionally, all three students showed increases in on-task behavior during reading instruction. This study demonstrated a functional relationship of repeated readings on oral reading fluency, but reading comprehension was not examined.