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An Argument for Mind, by Jerome Kagan (Yale, 304 pp., $27.50)
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ARISTOTLE famously held that to understand something requires knowing its "four causes": its material cause, the stuff out of which it is made; its formal cause, the specific form or essence that stuff exhibits, and which makes it the kind of thing it is; its efficient cause, that which brought it into existence; and its final cause, the end, purpose, or function it serves. This Aristotelian picture of scientific understanding prevailed until the end of the Middle Ages; indeed, its demise partially constituted the end of the Middle Ages. Modern thought, and especially ...