Traditional indigenous biodiversity-related knowledge.

Each year since 1997 an Aboriginal festival is held at a place called Gulkula in northeast Arnhem Land in the Northern Territory of Australia. The traditional owners of the land, the Gumatj clan, joined with other Yolnu clans with special affiliations to Gulkula to host a traditional ceremony, the Garma, and, for the first time, to invite others to come to the week long ceremonial gathering to learn about Yolnu culture, religion and philosophy. In 1999 Galarrwuy Yunupingu, a leader of the Gumatj clan, carved a wooden object, called in his language, Maak. (1) Adroitly carved diamond shapes on the Maak, it was explained, represented the sparks of fire that leapt from the wildfire and spread across the land. Like a fire, the truth burns', he explained, 'that's how we know it is the truth'. (2) It was his intention, he said, to have his invitation to learn Yolnu knowledge of the environment spread across the land 'like a fire'. (3)

The Maak was translated by Merrkiyawuy Stubbs and related to each Yolnu group that had come to the Garma ceremony. The carvings on the Maak each represented a part of a message which Marcia Langton was asked to deliver, along with the Maak, to the vice-chancellors of Australian universities. In the company of local Bundjalung and other clan leaders, the Maak was relayed to Professor Niland at the Australian Vice-Chancellors' Committee (AVCC) meeting at the Southern Cross University in northern New South Wales on 30 August 2000.

As Chairman of the Northern Land Council, Mr Yunupingu, with many other leaders of the clans of this remote part of Australia, was deeply concerned about the fate of traditional Aboriginal knowledge of the environment, as Western-trained government conservation officers encroached onto Aboriginal lands with plans for how the environmental values should be preserved. To do this properly, Mr Yunupingu said, it was important for the federal government to respect and recognise the value of traditional knowledge systems about environmental management, 'caring for the country is what we have done for tens of thousands of years and we intend to keep doing that'. (4) He explained his intentions in this way:

 
   ... we know that the best, and in fact the only way to do it is to 
   take advantage of both traditional and contemporary knowledge 
   systems. We want to make sure that Aboriginal people learn about 
   contemporary methods and that non-Aboriginal people learn about our 
   knowledge and experience. (5) 

In the spirit of the Garma Maak, we discuss here Indigenous Knowledge (IK) systems and some aspects of the value of this knowledge to the peoples who own it and use it. We draw on a study (6) for the Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity at the United Nations (UN) on the protection and maintenance of traditional biodiversity-related knowledge in Asia, the Middle East and Australia to discuss the potential of Indigenous traditional knowledge as a means of achieving the urgent task of maintaining these ancient systems of human engagement with the environment, and of preserving biodiversity.

What is Traditional or Indigenous Knowledge and Why is it Important?

The Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity (7) (CBD) defines traditional knowledge in the following way:

 
   Traditional knowledge refers to the knowledge, innovations and 
   practices of Indigenous and local communities around the world. 
   Developed from experience gained over the centuries and adapted to 
   the local culture and environment, traditional knowledge is 
   transmitted orally from generation to generation. It tends to 
   be collectively owned and takes the form of stories, songs, 
   folklore, proverbs, cultural values, beliefs, rituals, community 
   laws, local language, and agricultural practices, including the 
   development of plant species and animal breeds. Traditional 
   knowledge is mainly of a practical nature, particularly in such 
   fields as agriculture, fisheries, health, horticulture, and 
   forestry. (8) 

Traditional and Indigenous knowledge systems related to biodiversity conservation are fundamental to human life throughout much of Asia, the Middle East and Australia, especially in rural and remote areas, and they play a much larger role in economically developing countries than in developed nations such as, for instance, Australia, Singapore and Japan. This is because of the high dependence of human populations in developing nations in these regions on traditional food production and other activities for providing basic needs. As a result, the value of traditional and Indigenous knowledge systems to the economies of those countries is incalculable. Ferrari suggests that, although limited natural resources are found in urban environments, most biological diversity by far is found in rural areas. Quoting ASEAN (2001) figures, he points out that 'It could be therefore tempting to associate the term "local communities" with people living in rural areas, mostly consisting of farmers and fishers. Southeast Asia has a population of about 526 million, 330 million of whom (about 63%) live in rural areas'. (9)

Traditional knowledge systems are thus fundamental to the livelihoods of many millions of people. Further, traditional biodiversity-related knowledge used by agriculturalists is of great significance to food security for much of Asia and the Middle East. Traditional methods of irrigation and crop production, and maintenance of seed stock and cultivars, have maintained food and grazing resources, and traditional water management systems have been critical to societies across all ecosystems. Humans have domesticated animals for at least the last 10,000 years, and the coexistence of human and animal populations remains typical of most small-scale, traditional agricultural and herding societies. Hunting, gathering and fishing continue to contribute a substantial part of the diet and basic needs for populations in rural and remote areas of Australia and among coastal groups in Asia that rely on artisanal fisheries. In economically developed nations such as Australia and Japan, Indigenous peoples are dependent on traditional knowledge and practices in caring for their traditional estates, for the harvesting of wild food and animals, medicines, water, and other basic needs.

In each of the regions, it is evident that a rich storehouse of traditional biodiversity-related knowledge exists but is constantly under threat. The position of the Secretariat of the CBD is clear:

 
   There is today a growing appreciation of the value of traditional 
   knowledge. This knowledge is valuable not only to those who depend 
   on it in their daily lives, but to modern industry and agriculture 
   as well. Many widely used products, such as plant-based medicines 
   and cosmetics, are derived from traditional knowledge. Other 
   valuable products based on traditional knowledge include 
   agricultural and non-wood forest products as well as handicraft. 
 
   Traditional knowledge can make a significant contribution to 
   sustainable development. Most Indigenous and local communities are 
   situated in areas where the vast majority of the world's plant 
   genetic resources are found. Many of them have cultivated and used 
   biological diversity in a sustainable way for thousands of years. 
   However, the contribution of Indigenous and local communities to 
   the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity goes 
   far beyond their role as natural resource managers. Their skills 
   and techniques provide valuable information to the global 
   community and a useful model for biodiversity policies. 
   Furthermore, as on-site communities with extensive knowledge of 
   local environments, Indigenous and local communities are most 
   directly involved with conservation and sustainable use. (10) 

From the study we undertook, our most critical conclusion was that most developing nations of the Asian region do not have the capacity for all of the people who live within their borders to enter the market economy fully. Without attention paid to the protection and preservation of the traditional knowledge and customary natural resource management and tenure systems in the lands and waters of local communities and Indigenous peoples, these nations would be even more vulnerable to food shortages and famines. Some nation states, in acknowledgement of their agreement to the principles of the Convention on Biological Diversity, are seeking ways to conserve rich biospheres whilst balancing a need to ensure that traditional communities can continue to sustain themselves. It is in the interests of nations to engage Indigenous peoples and local communities in the task of protecting the biological diversity in their environment.

In many cases throughout Asia and Australia, the present situation involves a combination of tradition, revival of customary practices, and new approaches. A range of measures to protect biodiversity-related knowledge have been implemented by Indigenous and local communities. Examples include: digital libraries, people's biodiversity registers, inventories, web portals, and in situ management projects that rely, at least in part, on local traditional biodiversity-related knowledge. A growing body of literature has recognised the role of traditional knowledge and practices in preserving biodiversity. (11) For Indigenous peoples and local communities, concern over the preservation and maintenance of traditional knowledge is not only motivated by the desire to conserve 'biodiversity' as an end in itself, but also by the desire to live on their ancestral lands, to preserve their traditional livelihoods, to safeguard local food security and, to the extent possible, exercise local economic, cultural and political autonomy. (12)

As national education systems are extended to rural and remote populations, the documentation of this knowledge will be critical to the capacity of future generations to access that knowledge. (13) This is a particular concern for the Yolnu people in Australia.

Threats to Traditional Biodiversity-Related Knowledge

 
   This Maak is a declaration by the Yolnu leaders ... The Garma 
   ceremony is an enactment of the meaning of being Yolnu, of being 
   human, as we understand this through our cultural inheritance from 
   our ancestors. Our performance of the ceremony embodies the meanings 
   of our traditions, enshrined in sacred places. To those of us who 
   participate, Garma restores our spirit to a state of harmony and 
   balance in the world, purifying us and bringing us to a deeper 
   understanding of our duty to respect and share the legacy of our 
   knowledge ... 
 
   The first Maak is to introduce the concept of Yolnu knowledge 
   systems as ancient foundations, ways of comprehending the world that 
   have sustained Yolnu societies. Our traditions provide us with the 
   knowledge and the skills to harvest the bounty of the land and the 
   sea for the satisfaction of our needs, and the opportunity to enjoy 
   life. Through the ideas of Garma we explore our humanity. We, the 
   Yolnu, Aboriginal people of Northeast Arnhem Land, believe that our 
   intellectual traditions are relevant to people of other societies, 
   and are especially important to universities and institutions in 
   which people seek to expand human knowledge. Garma Maak, 1999. (14) 

The observance of respect for the ancestral domain is universal among traditional and Indigenous peoples. The Garma Maak begins with such a declaration and draws our attention to the role of religious and other traditional institutions, leaders and…