Self-monitoring of attention versus self-monitoring of academic performance: effects among students with ADHD in the general education classroom.(attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder)

A counterbalanced, multiple-baseline, across-subjects design was used to determine if attention and performance monitoring had differential effects on the on-task and spelling study behavior of 6 elementary students with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in the general education classroom. Both self-monitoring of attention and self-monitoring of performance had positive effects on students' on-task and spelling study behaviors. While improvement in on-task behavior was comparable across the two interventions, self-monitoring of attention produced substantially higher gains in spelling study behavior among 4 of the 6 students. Although this is the first study in which differential effects of these 2 interventions have been investigated among students with ADHD, previous studies with students with learning disabilities (LD) have found that self-monitoring of performance tended to result in higher rates of spelling study than did self-monitoring of attention. Possible reasons for this difference among students with ADHD and those with LD are noted, as are directions for future research and recommendations for teachers regarding the implementation of self-monitoring interventions.

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Historically, the ability to control and regulate one's behavior has been considered a desirable characteristic. The Scottish poet Robert Burns considered prudent, cautious self-control to be the root of wisdom, and William Penn, the founder of Pennsylvania, did not consider a person fit for commanding others who could not, in his words, command himself. Today, our ability to understand and regulate our own behavior is considered an important characteristic of human beings (Graham, Harris, & Reid, 1992; Kanfer, 1971, 1977).

In classroom situations, self-regulatory abilities can improve a student's academic performance and are a critical factor in child development and learning (Harris, 1982; Zimmerman & Schunk, 1989). Although self-regulatory abilities are desirable, their formulation is challenging for many children (Harris & Schmidt, 1997). For children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), who exhibit significant problems with inattention, impulsivity and inhibition, and overactivity, the development of such skills is an even more formidable task (Semrud-Clikeman et al., 1999; Shimabukuro, Prater, Jenkins, & Edelen-Smith, 1999).

Approximately 3% to 5% of elementary-age students in the United States are diagnosed with ADHD. In classroom settings, these students often complete work at rates lower than expected, produce work of poorer quality than they are capable of, and have difficulty maintaining on-task behaviors or following through when given instructions (Barkley, 1990; Davies & Witte; 2000; Frick et al., 1991; Reif, 1993). Furthermore, as Barkley (1994, 1997) stated, children with ADHD are often impersistent while engaged in activities requiring self-regulation and find delay of gratification challenging. Because of their difficulties with inhibitory control, children with ADHD frequently fail to manage or control their behavioral responding (Shapiro, DuPaul, & Bradley-Klug; 1998). While students with ADHD usually perform in the average range on achievement tests, underachievement is common among them. The daily performance of these students on classroom tasks and homework is typically inconsistent and below that of their peers; up to 80% of students with ADHD have been found to exhibit academic performance problems (DuPaul & Stoner, 2002, 2003). Prospective follow-up studies of children with ADHD have found significantly higher rates of grade retention, placement in special education, and school dropout and lower high school grade-point average and enrollment in college (DuPaul & Stoner, 2003).

Although pharmacological interventions and behavior modification programs are most often used to improve classroom behavior among students with ADHD, research clearly indicates that those interventions are not sufficient for ameliorating these students' academic and social performance problems (DuPaul & Eckert, 1997; DuPaul & Stoner, 2003; Purdie, Hattie, & Carroll, 2002; Shapiro, Durnan, Post, & Levinson, 2002). Researchers have noted a need for interventions in the classroom that create additive effects beyond those established with medication to enhance educational outcomes for students with ADHD; important academic behaviors to target and assess include completion and accuracy of independent classwork and homework, as well as acquisition of skills taught in the curriculum (Purdieet al., 2002; DuPaul & Stoner, 2003).

Explicit development of self-regulation abilities may enhance the on-task and academic performance of these students (DuPaul & Stoner, 2002; Harris, 1982; Lam, Cole, Shapiro, & Bambara, 1994; Reid, 1996). Self-regulation interventions have been used successfully to help students with special needs regulate their behaviors while engaged in a wide range of tasks (cf. Fowler, 1986; Reid & Harris, 1993; Shimabukuro et al., 1999). These interventions assist students in working responsibly and independently (Burke, 1992), are often less intrusive than teacher-managed treatments (Fantuzzo, Polite, Cook, & Quinn, 1988), enhance students' control of their learning, and may be more effective than interventions managed primarily by the teacher (DuPaul & Stoner, 2002).