Validity of office discipline referral measures as indices of school-wide behavioral status and effects of school-wide behavioral interventions.

Abstract: Office discipline referrals (ODRs) are widely used by school personnel to evaluate student behavior and the behavioral climate of schools. In this article, the authors report the results of a review of the relevant literature to evaluate the validity of ODR data as indices of school-wide behavioral climate, the effects of school-wide behavioral interventions, and differing behavior support needs across schools. They used Messick's unified approach to validity by focusing on examples of evidence for empirical and ethical foundations of interpretations, uses, and social consequences of ODR measures at the school-wide level The authors also discuss ongoing issues, study limitations, and related recommendations for interpretations and uses of ODR measures as school-wide indices, based on the existing literature.

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In 1708, Cotton Mather implored his fellow colonists to send their children to school to "qualify them for future Serviceableness and have their Manners therewithal well-formed under a Laudable Discipline" to prevent "barbarous ignorance" leading to "outrageous wickedness" that could threaten the very survival of the colony (Mather, 1828/1975, p. 21). Much has happened in education in the United States since Mather made his impassioned plea; yet, some of the same issues continue to fuel debates regarding the effectiveness of U.S. schools in fulfilling the responsibility of educating children to be not only literate and knowledgeable about the arts and sciences but also well-behaved citizens.

Recently, the antisocial, and even violent, behavior of some children in schools has become a most pressing concern (Sprague et al., 2002; Walker & Shinn, 2002). Within this context, schools staff are being held responsible for ensuring safe environments where all children can learn appropriate academic and social skills. In accomplishing this responsibility, they face a number of challenges, foremost of which are decisions regarding instructional and disciplinary practices in the context of multiple--and sometimes conflicting--cultural values concerning the role of schools in our society. Mather spoke from the vantage point of a privileged citizen in a rather homogeneous society, but contemporary U.S. society typically does not grant a similarly largely unquestioned authority to individual persons.

U.S. communities and schools have become pluralistic networks of citizen patrons and policymakers, educational administrators, diverse family and student populations, teachers, and curricular strategies. Within this increasingly diverse context, communities and their school systems are experiencing a variety of antisocial behaviors that challenge their abilities to effectively educate children (see Paine & Paine, 2002; Snell, Mackenzie, & Frey, 2002).

In response to antisocial and disciplinary incidents, many school administrators and licensed staff have turned to school-wide behavioral support programs (Dwyer, 2002; Sugai, Horner, & Gresham, 2002). These programs are premised on the assumption that when all school staff members in all school settings actively teach and consistently reinforce appropriate behavior, the number of students with serious behavior problems will be reduced and the school climate will improve. More specifically, the conceptual foundation for school-wide behavior support programs is the following logic or "interpretive argument" (Kane, 1992): Behavioral climate of schools should vary as a function of the local building and district-level interplay of several factors:

* student behaviors and attitudes