Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports and Issue Briefs articles from November 2006

Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports and Issue Briefs archives from November 2006

India-U.S. relations.
November 1, 2006... Updated November 9, 2006 Summary The end of the Cold War freed India-U.S. relations from the constraints of global bipolarity, but interactions continued for a decade to be affected by the burden of history, most notably the...

Immigration legislation and issues in the 109th Congress.
November 1, 2006... Updated November 7, 2006 Summary Security concerns have figured prominently in the development of and debate on immigration legislation in the 109th Congress. In May 2005, the REAL ID Act became law as Division B of P.L. 109-13. It...

Iran: U.S. concerns and policy responses.
November 1, 2006... Updated November 1, 2006 Summary According to the Administration's "National Security Strategy" document released on March 16, 2006, the United States "may face no greater challenge from a single country than Iran." That perception...

Iraq: post-Saddam governance and security.
November 1, 2006... Updated November 7, 2006 Summary Operation Iraqi Freedom overthrew Saddam Hussein's regime, but Iraq remains unstable because of Sunni Arab resentment and a related insurgency, compounded by Sunni-Shiite violence that some believe has...

Iraq: elections, government, and constitution.
November 1, 2006... Summary Elections in 2005 for a transition government (January 30, 2005), a permanent constitution (October 15), and a permanent (four year) government (December 15) were concluded despite insurgent violence, progressively attracting Sunni...

India and Iran: WMD proliferation activities.(weapons of mass destruction)
November 1, 2006... Summary Members of Congress have questioned whether India's cooperation with Iran might affect U.S. and other efforts to prevent Iran from developing nuclear weapons. India's long relationship with Iran and its support of Non-Aligned...

Afghanistan: post-war governance, security, and U.S. policy.
November 1, 2006... Updated November 3, 2006 Summary Afghanistan's political transition was completed with the convening of a parliament in December 2005, but since then insurgent threats to Afghanistan's government have escalated to the point that some...

Background to recent developments.
November 1, 2006... Prior to the founding of a monarchy in 1747 by Ahmad Shah Durrani, Afghanistan was territory inhabited by tribes and tribal confederations linked to neighboring nations, not a distinct entity. King Amanullah Khan (1919-1929) launched attacks on...

Post-war stabilization and reconstruction (6).(Afghanistan: Post-War Governance, Security, and U.S. Policy)(Bonn Agreement)
November 1, 2006... The war paved the way for the success of a decade-long U.N. effort to form a broad-based Afghan government. The United Nations was viewed as a credible mediator by all sides largely because of its role in ending the Soviet occupation. During...

Regional context.
November 1, 2006... Although most of Afghanistan's neighbors believe that the fall of the Taliban has stabilized the region, some experts believe that some neighboring governments are attempting to manipulate Afghanistan's factions to their advantage, even though...

U.S. and international aid to Afghanistan.
November 1, 2006... Many experts believe that financial assistance and accelerating reconstruction would do more to improve the security situation than intensified anti-Taliban combat. Afghanistan's economy and society are still fragile after decades of warfare...

Residual issues from past conflicts.(Afghanistan: Post-War Governance, Security, and U.S. Policy)
November 1, 2006... A few issues remain unresolved from Afghanistan's many years of conflict. Stinger Retrieval. Beginning in late 1985 following internal debate, the Reagan Administration provided about 2,000 man-portable "Stinger" anti-aircraft missiles to...

Appendix 1: U.S. and international sanctions lifted.(Afghanistan: Post-War Governance, Security, and U.S. Policy)
November 1, 2006... Virtually all U.S. and international sanctions on Afghanistan, some imposed during the Soviet occupation era and others on the Taliban regime, have now been lifted. * On January 10, 2003, President Bush signed a proclamation making...

Afghanistan: elections, constitution, and government.
November 1, 2006... Summary In 2004 and 2005, Afghanistan adopted a permanent constitution and elected a president and a parliament. The parliament is emerging as a significant force in Afghan politics, as shown in debates to approve cabinet and Supreme Court...

China and proliferation of weapons of mass destruction and missiles: policy issues.
November 1, 2006... Updated November 15, 2006 Summary Congress has long been concerned about whether U.S. policy advances the national interest in reducing the role of the People's Republic of China (PRC) in the proliferation of weapons of mass...

Purpose and scope.(China and Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction and Missiles: Policy Issues)(proliferation of weapons of mass destruction )
November 1, 2006... Congress has long been concerned about whether U.S. policy advances the U.S. interest in reducing the role of the People's Republic of China (PRC) in the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction (WMD) and missiles and obtaining China's...

PRC proliferation challenges.(China and Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction and Missiles: Policy Issues)(People's Republic of China)
November 1, 2006... Nonproliferation Commitments but Continued Concerns Since 1991, Beijing has taken steps to address U.S. and other countries' concerns by increasing its partial participation in international nonproliferation regimes and issuing export...

Policy issues and options.(relations between United STtaes and China)
November 1, 2006... Issues for Policy Weapons proliferation by the PRC and/or its organizations raises policy issues concerning: (1) assessments of the nature and seriousness of the PRC government's role in the proliferation threat; (2) the priority of this...

Central Asia: regional developments and implications for U.S. interests.
November 1, 2006... Updated November 16, 2006 Summary After the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, the United States recognized the independence of all the former Central Asian republics, supported their admission into Western organizations, and...

Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia: political developments and implications for U.S. interests.
November 1, 2006... Updated November 16, 2006 Summary The United States recognized the independence of all the former Soviet republics by the end of 1991, including the South Caucasus states of Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia. The United States has...

Defense transformation: background and oversight issues for Congress.
November 1, 2006... Updated November 9, 2006 Summary The Bush Administration identified transformation as a major goal for the Department of Defense (DOD) soon after taking office, and has justified many of its initiatives for DOD in connection with the...

Israel: background and relations with the United States.
November 1, 2006... Updated November 14, 2006 Summary On May 14, 1948, the State of Israel declared its independence and was immediately engaged in a war with all of its neighbors. Armed conflict has marked every decade of Israel's existence. Despite its...

Iranian nuclear sites.(International Atomic Energy Agency)
November 1, 2006... Summary This report describes Iran's known nuclear sites listed in official International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) reports and includes a map with the location of the nuclear facilities. For further information and analysis of Iran's...

International drug trade and U.S. foreign policy.
November 1, 2006... Updated November 6, 2006 Summary Efforts to significantly reduce the flow of illicit drugs from abroad into the United States have so far not succeeded. Moreover, over the past decade, worldwide production of illicit drugs has risen...

Nuclear weapons: comprehensive test ban treaty.
November 1, 2006... Updated November 15, 2006 Summary A comprehensive test ban treaty, or CTBT, is the oldest item on the nuclear arms control agenda. Three treaties currently limit testing to underground only, with a maximum force equal to 150,000 tons...

Trade negotiations during the 109th Congress.
November 1, 2006... Updated November 14, 2006 Summary The Bush Administration has made bilateral and regional free-trade agreements (FTAs) more important elements of U.S. trade policy, a strategy known as "competitive liberalization." This strategy, it...

Treatment of "battlefield detainees" in the war on terrorism.
November 1, 2006... Updated November 14, 2006 Summary In June 2004, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in Rasul v. Bush that U.S. courts have jurisdiction to hear challenges on behalf of persons detained at the U.S. Naval Station in Guantanamo Bay, Cuba, in...

Background.(Treatment of "Battlefield Detainees" in the War on Terrorism)
November 1, 2006... The U.S. Supreme Court decided at the end of its 2003-2004 term that U.S. courts have jurisdiction to hear challenges on behalf the approximately 550 persons who were detained at the U.S. Naval Station in Guantanamo Bay, Cuba, in connection...

The law of war.
November 1, 2006... The law of war, also known as the law of armed conflict or humanitarian law, is a subset of international law that has evolved through centuries of efforts to mitigate the harmful effects of war. Recognizing the impossibility of eliminating...

Treatment of detainees at Guantanamo.(treatment of war prisoners)
November 1, 2006... The Department of Defense defends its treatment of the detainees at the Guantanamo Naval Station as fully complying with the principles of the Geneva Convention, and view the treatment as compliant with Common Article 3 (228) as well as...

Congress's role.(prisoners of war)
November 1, 2006... The Constitution provides Congress with ample authority to legislate the treatment of battlefield detainees in the custody of the U.S. military. The Constitution empowers Congress to make rules regarding capture on land or water, (295) to...

U.S. international borders: brief facts.
November 1, 2006... Summary This report provides information on the international boundaries that the United States shares with Canada and Mexico. Included are data on land and water boundaries for the northern Canadian border and the southern Mexican border,...

U.S. trade and investment relationship with sub-Saharan Africa: the African growth and opportunity act and beyond.
November 1, 2006... Updated November 13, 2006 Summary Following the end of the apartheid era in South Africa in the early 1990s, the United States sought to increase economic relations with sub-Saharan Africa. President Clinton instituted several measures...

WTO dispute settlement: stages and pending U.S. activity before the dispute settlement body.
November 1, 2006... Summary World Trade Organization (WTO) member countries resolve disputes pursuant to the WTO Dispute Settlement Understanding (DSU), which establishes the Dispute Settlement Body (DSB) to administer dispute proceedings and contains the...

NATO in Afghanistan: a test of the transatlantic alliance.(North Atlantic Treaty Organization)(Organization overview)
November 1, 2006... Updated November 1, 2006 Summary The mission of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) in Afghanistan is seen as a test of the alliance's political will and military capabilities. The allies are seeking to create a "new" NATO,...

National emergency powers.
November 1, 2006... Updated November 13, 2006 Summary The President of the United States has available certain powers that may be exercised in the event that the nation is threatened by crisis, exigency, or emergency circumstances (other than natural...

Israeli-Arab negotiations: background, conflicts, and U.S. policy.
November 1, 2006... Updated November 14, 2006 Summary After the first Gulf war, in 1991, a new peace process involved bilateral negotiations between Israel and the Palestinians, Jordan, Syria, and Lebanon with mixed results. Milestones included the...

The United States and Europe: current issues.
November 1, 2006... Summary The United States and Europe share a long and intertwined history. Both sides of the Atlantic face a common set of international concerns, have few other comparable partners, and share a deep economic relationship. Despite much...

Nuclear fuel reprocessing: U.S. policy development.
November 1, 2006... Summary As part of the World War II effort to develop the atomic bomb, reprocessing technology was developed to chemically separate and recover fissionable plutonium from irradiated nuclear fuel. In the early stage of commercial nuclear...

Homeland Security: evolving roles and missions for United States Northern Command.(Agency overview)
November 1, 2006... Summary In 2002, the Department of Defense (DOD) established United States Northern Command (NORTHCOM). Four years later, the organization continues to mature and adapt to evolving National Homeland Security Policy. Current issue areas for...

Taiwan: major U.S. arms sales since 1990.
November 1, 2006... Updated November 9, 2006 Summary This report, updated as warranted, discusses U.S. security assistance to Taiwan, or Republic of China (ROC), including policy issues for Congress and legislation. The Taiwan Relations Act (TRA), P.L....

U.S. policy.
November 1, 2006... This report discusses U.S. security assistance for Taiwan, formally called the Republic of China (ROC), including policy issues for Congress. It also lists sales of major defense articles and services to Taiwan, as approved by the...

Major U.S. arms sales as notified to Congress.(Taiwan: Major U.S. Arms Sales Since 1990)
November 1, 2006... The following table provides information on U.S. sales (not deliveries) of major defense articles and services to Taiwan, as approved by the President, proposed in Letters of Offer and Acceptance, and formally notified to Congress since 1990....

Panama: political and economic conditions and U.S. relations.
November 1, 2006... Updated November 16, 2006 Summary With four successive elected civilian governments, the Central American nation of Panama has made notable political and economic progress since the 1989 U.S. military intervention that ousted the...

Iraqi police and security forces casualty estimates.
November 1, 2006... Summary This report presents various estimates of Iraqi police and security forces fatalities. The Department of Defense (DOD) regularly updates total U.S. military deaths and wounded statistics from Operation Iraqi Freedom (OIF), as...

Drug trafficking and North Korea: issues for U.S. policy.
November 1, 2006... Updated November 27, 2006 Summary At least 50 documented incidents in more than 20 countries around the world, many involving arrest or detention of North Korean diplomats, link North Korea to drug trafficking. Such events, in the...

AIDS in Africa.
November 1, 2006... Updated November 24, 2006 Summary Sub-Saharan Africa ("Africa" hereafter) has been more severely affected by AIDS than any other part of the world. In 2006, the United Nations reports, there were in the range of 24.7 million...

Current economic conditions and selected forecasts.
November 1, 2006... Updated November 22, 2006 Summary U.S. real GDP growth has been positive for 18 consecutive quarters, and the economy is considered to be in an "expansion" phase. As of the second quarter 2006, real or inflation-adjusted growth was...

Lebanon.(international relations)
November 1, 2006... Updated November 28, 2006 Summary The United States and Lebanon continue to enjoy good relations. Prominent current issues between the United States and Lebanon include progress toward a Lebanon-Israel peace treaty, U.S. aid to...

Monetary policy: current policy and conditions.
November 1, 2006... Updated November 22, 2006 Summary Monetary policy can be defined broadly as any policy relating to the supply of money. Since the main agency concerned with the supply of money is the nation's central bank, the Federal Reserve,...

The National Biodefense Analysis and Countermeasures Center: issues for Congress.
November 1, 2006... Updated November 21, 2006 Summary The mission of the National Biodefense Analysis and Countermeasures Center (NBACC) is to understand current and future biological threats; assess vulnerabilities and determine potential consequences;...

U.S. forces in Iraq.
November 1, 2006... Summary Varying media estimates of military forces in Iraq have raised concerns about the actual number of troops deployed in Operation Iraqi Freedom (OIF). This report provides solely Department of Defense (DOD) statistical information on...

U.S. international trade: trends and forecasts.
November 1, 2006... Updated November 22, 2006 Summary This report provides an overview of the current status, trends, and forecasts for U.S. international trade. The purpose of this report is to provide current data and brief explanations for the various...

U.S. nuclear cooperation with India: issues for Congress.
November 1, 2006... Updated November 22, 2006 Summary On July 18, 2005, President Bush announced he would "work to achieve full civil nuclear energy cooperation with India" and would "also seek agreement from Congress to adjust U.S. laws and policies,"...

U.S. trade deficit and the impact of rising oil prices.
November 1, 2006... Summary Petroleum prices have risen sharply since early 2004. At the same time the average amount of imports of energy-related petroleum products has fallen slightly. The combination of sharply rising prices and a slightly lower level of...

Weapons of mass destruction: trade between North Korea and Pakistan.
November 1, 2006... Updated November 28, 2006 Summary In October 2002, the United States confronted North Korea about its alleged clandestine uranium enrichment program. Soon after, the Agreed Framework collapsed, North Korea expelled international...

Energy: selected facts and numbers.(energy consumption)
November 1, 2006... Updated November 29, 2006 Summary Energy supplies and prices are major economic factors in the United States, and energy markets are volatile and unpredictable. For both these reasons, energy policy is of frequent interest to Congress....

India's nuclear separation plan: issues and views.
November 1, 2006... Updated November 21, 2006 Summary On July 18, 2005, President Bush and Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh announced the creation of a "global partnership," which would include "full" civil nuclear cooperation between the United...

Generalized system of preferences renewal: agricultural imports.
November 1, 2006... Summary The Generalized System of Preferences (GSP) provides duty-free tariff treatment for certain products from designated developing countries. Legislation authorizing the current GSP program expires December 31, 2006. Agricultural...

Covert action: legislative background and possible policy questions.
November 1, 2006... November 2, 2006 Summary Published reports have suggested that in the wake of the 9/11 terrorist attacks, the Pentagon has expanded its counter-terrorism intelligence activities as part of the global war on terror. Some observers have...

Intelligence estimates: how useful to Congress?
November 1, 2006... November 21, 2006 Summary National Intelligence Estimates (NIEs) are often of considerable interest to many Members of Congress. They represent the most formal assessment of a given issue by the U.S. Intelligence Community and address...

Iraqi civilian deaths estimates.
November 1, 2006... Summary This report presents various governmental and nongovernmental estimates of Iraqi civilian fatalities. The Department of Defense (DOD) regularly updates total U.S. military death and wounded statistics from Operation Iraqi Freedom...