Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports and Issue Briefs articles from December 2011

Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports and Issue Briefs archives from December 2011

Free trade agreements: impact on U.S. trade and implications for U.S. trade policy.(Report)
December 1, 2011... Contents What Are Free Trade Areas? Why Countries Form FTAs FTAs in the Context of U.S. Trade Policy Obama Administration Policy and Recent Developments Economic Impact of FTAs FTAs and the WTO The Debate Over FTAs Conclusions and Implications...

Iran sanctions.
December 1, 2011... Summary There is broad international support for imposing progressively strict economic sanctions on Iran to try to compel it to verifiably confine its nuclear program to purely peaceful uses. Many U.S. and international officials appear to...

Overview.(Iran sanctions)(Brief article)
December 1, 2011... The Obama Administration's policy approach toward Iran has contrasted with the Bush Administration's by attempting to couple the imposition of sanctions to U.S. negotiations with Iran on the nuclear issue. However, with negotiations yielding no...

Sanctions targeting foreign participation in Iran's energy sector: The Iran Sanctions Act, (ISA), CISADA, and a November 2011 Executive Order.(Iran sanctions)(Comprehensive Iran Sanctions, Accountability, and Divestment Act)(Report)
December 1, 2011... The Iran Sanctions Act (ISA) is one of many U.S. sanctions in place against Iran. It has attracted substantial attention because it is an "extra-territorial sanction"--it authorizes U.S. penalties against foreign firms, many of which are...

Ban on U.S. trade and investment with Iran.(Iran sanctions)(Report)
December 1, 2011... A ban on U.S. trade with and investment in Iran was imposed on May 6, 1995, by President Clinton, through Executive Order 12959. (13) This followed an earlier March 1995 executive order barring U.S. investment in Iran's energy sector. The trade...

Banking: Treasury Department Financial Measures, CISADA, and Patriot Act Section 311.(Iran sanctions)(Comprehensive Iran Sanctions, Accountability, and Divestment Act)
December 1, 2011... U.S. efforts to shut Iran out of the international banking system have gained strength as other countries have joined the effort. These efforts have been implemented by the Treasury Department through "targeted financial measures," and several...

Terrorism List Designation-Related Sanctions Executive Order 13224.(Iran sanctions)
December 1, 2011... Several U.S. sanctions are in effect as a result of Iran's presence on the U.S. "terrorism list." The list was established by Section 6(j) of the Export Administration Act of 1979 (P.L. 96-72, as amended), sanctioning countries determined to...

Proliferation-Related U.S. Sanctions.(Iran sanctions)
December 1, 2011... Iran is prevented from receiving advanced technology from the United States under relevant and Iran-specific anti-proliferation laws (31) and by Executive Order 13382 (June 28, 2005). Some of these laws and executive measures seek to penalize...

U.S. Efforts to Promote Divestment.(Iran sanctions)(Brief article)
December 1, 2011... A growing trend not only in Congress but in several states is to require or call for or require divestment of shares of firms that have invested in Iran's energy sector (at the same levels considered sanctionable under the Iran Sanctions Act)....

U.S. Sanctions Intended to Support Democratic Change in Iran or Alter Iran's Foreign Policy.(Iran sanctions)
December 1, 2011... A trend since the June 2009 Iran election dispute has been to promote the prospects for the domestic opposition in Iran. Proposals to target the Revolutionary Guard for sanctions, discussed throughout, represent one facet of that trend. The IRGC...

Blocked Iranian Property and Assets.(Iran sanctions)(Brief article)
December 1, 2011... Iranian leaders continue to assert that the United States is holding Iranian assets, and that this is an impediment to improved relations. A U.S.-Iran Claims Tribunal at the Hague continues to arbitrate cases resulting from the 1980 break in...

U.N. Sanctions.(Iran sanctions)
December 1, 2011... The U.S. sanctions discussed in this report are more extensive than those imposed, to date, by the United Nations Security Council or by individual foreign countries or groups of countries, such as the European Union. However, U.N. sanctions...

International Implementation and Compliance.(Iran sanctions)(Report)
December 1, 2011... U.S. allies have generally supported and joined the Obama Administration's sanctions toward Iran, in part because the approach is perceived as not purely punitive, and in part because their own concerns about Iran's nuclear advancement have...

Effects of Sanctions on Iran.(Iran sanctions)(Report)
December 1, 2011... Assessing the effectiveness of U.S. and international sanctions on depends at least in part upon which goals are being examined. U.S. officials acknowledge that the sanctions have not achieved the core goal of altering Iran's commitment to its...

Additional Sanctions: Possible Legislation, Administrative, and Multilateral Action Possible Additional Multilateral Sanctions.(Iran sanctions)(Report)
December 1, 2011... Some in the 112th Congress believe that the cumulative effect of U.S. and international sanctions--even after the U.S. British, and Canadian steps taken on November 21, 2011--remain insufficient to accomplish key U.S. policy goals toward Iran,...

"Super PACs" in federal elections: overview and issues for Congress.(political action committees)(Report)
December 1, 2011... Contents Introduction and Highlights of Key Findings Organization and Scope of the Report What Are Super PACs? Why Might Super PACs Matter to Congress? How Have Super PACs Been Regulated? What Information Must Super PACs Disclose? Overall, What...

U.S.-Japan economic relations: significance, prospects, and policy options.(Report)
December 1, 2011... Contents An Overview of U.S.-Japan Economic Trends The Japanese and U.S. Economies U.S.-Japanese Trade in Goods and Services U.S.-Japan Bilateral Investment The Bilateral Economic Relationship and Shifting U.S. and Japanese Policy...

Iraq: politics, governance, and human rights.(Report)
December 1, 2011... Contents Overview of the Political Transition/First Elections Initial Transition and Construction of the Political System January 30, 2005, Elections for an Interim Government Permanent Constitution December 15, 2005, Elections Post-2005...

Kuwait: security, reform, and U.S. policy.(Report)
December 1, 2011... Contents Kuwaiti Government Changes and Political Reform The National Assembly and Disputes With the Ruling Family Post-Succession Crises: Assembly Suspensions and Elections in 2006 and 2008 Political Crisis Continues: 2009...

Comprehensive nuclear-test-ban treaty: background and current developments.(Report)
December 1, 2011... Contents Most Recent Developments History National Positions on Testing and the CTBT The North Korean Nuclear Tests The October 2006 Nuclear Test The May 2009 Nuclear Test The CTBT: Negotiations, Provisions, Entry into Force, CTBTO Budget...

Millennium challenge corporation.(Report)
December 1, 2011... Contents Most Recent Developments Introduction MCC Policy and Programs Selection of Candidate Countries Eligible Country Selection Criteria and Methodology Selection of Eligible Countries Country Selection--FY2011 MCC Compacts ...

Libya: transition and U.S. policy.(Report)
December 1, 2011... Contents Background Assessment Issues before Congress Legislation in the 112th Congress Possible Questions Key Developments Libya's Transition Plans, Interim Government, and Next Steps Transition Plans Interim Cabinet ...

World Trade Organization negotiations: The Doha Development Agenda.(Report)
December 1, 2011... Contents Background What Began at Doha? Progress of the Negotiations: The Search for Modalities The Cancun Ministerial The WTO Framework Agreement The Hong Kong Ministerial Suspension Consequences ...

International climate change financing: the Green Climate Fund (GCF).(Report)
December 1, 2011... Contents Introduction Background on the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change The Durban Platform and the Green Climate Fund Outstanding Challenges for the Fund Relationship of the Fund to the Convention The World Bank as...

Afghanistan: politics, elections, and government performance.
December 1, 2011... December 12, 2011 Summary The limited capacity and widespread corruption of all levels of Afghan governance are factors in implementing a transition to Afghan security leadership by the end of 2014 and in formulating plans to assist...

Overview: historic patterns of Afghan authority and politics.(Afghanistan: Politics, Elections, and Government Performance)
December 1, 2011... Through differing regimes of widely varying ideologies, Afghanistan's governing structure has historically consisted of weak central government unwilling or unable to enforce significant financial or administrative mandates on all of...

Post-Taliban transition and political landscape.(Afghanistan: Politics, Elections, and Government Performance)(Report)
December 1, 2011... The sections below discuss Afghan politics, but U.S. interests since 2001 have been to help expand the capacity of Afghan governing institutions, most of which were nearly non-existent during Taliban rule. No parliament was functioning during...

Afghan governing capacity and performance.(Afghanistan: politics, Elections, and Government Performance)(Report)
December 1, 2011... In two major Afghanistan policy addresses-March 27, 2009, and December 1, 2009-President Obama stressed that more needed to be done to promote the legitimacy and effectiveness of the Afghan government at both the Kabul and local levels. In the...

U.S. trade deficit and the impact of changing oil prices.(Report)
December 1, 2011... Contents Background Issues for Congress Contacts Author Contact Information December 13, 2011 Summary Petroleum prices rose sharply between September 2010 and June 2011, at times reaching more than $112 per barrel of crude oil....

Temporary protected status: current immigration policy and issues.(Report)
December 1, 2011... Contents Background Humanitarian Migrants Temporary Protected Status Other Blanket Forms of Relief Nationalities Receiving Temporary Protections Issues Haitians Other Nations Affected by Natural Disasters Liberians Central...

Russia's December 2011 legislative election: outcome and implications.
December 1, 2011... Contents Background The Campaign Results and Assessments Implications for Russia and Putin The Post-Election Protests Implications for U.S. Interests and Congressional Concerns Contacts Author Contact Information December 13, 2011 ...

U.S. nuclear cooperation with India: issues for Congress.(Report)
December 1, 2011... Contents Introduction July 2005 Joint Statement and Subsequent Major Developments Indian Nuclear Cooperation since September 2008 Nuclear Cooperation with the United States India's Nuclear Cooperation with Other Countries...

Pakistan: U.S. foreign aid conditions, restrictions, and reporting requirements.(Report)
December 1, 2011... Contents Context: Recent Turmoil in U.S.-Pakistan Relations Current Law Department of State, Foreign Operations, and Related Programs Title XI, Department of Defense and Full-year Continuing Appropriations Act, 2011--P.L. 112-10 ...

Iran: U.S. concerns and policy responses.
December 1, 2011... December 15, 2011 Summary The Obama Administration identifies Iran as a major threat to U.S. national security interests. This perception is generated by suspicions of Iran's intentions for its nuclear program heightened by a November 8,...

Political history.(Iran: U.S. Concerns and Policy Responses)
December 1, 2011... Much of the debate over U.S. policy toward Iran has centered on the nature of the current regime. Some believe that Iran, a country of about 70 million people, is a threat to U.S. interests because hardliners in Iran's regime dominate and set a...

Regime structure, stability, and opposition.(Iran: U.S. Concerns and Policy Responses)(Report)
December 1, 2011... Iran's Islamic regime, established in a constitution adopted in a popular referendum, is widely considered authoritarian, but not as "one-man rule." The system provides for a degree of popular input and checks and balances provided by elected...

Other human rights practices.(Iran: U.S. Concerns and Policy Responses)
December 1, 2011... International criticism of Iran's human rights practices predates and transcends the crackdown against the Green Movement. Table 3, which discusses the regime's record on a number of human rights issues, is based largely on the latest State...

Iran's strategic capabilities and weapons of mass destruction programs.(Iran: U.S. Concerns and Policy Responses)(Report)
December 1, 2011... The Obama Administration views Iran as one of the key national security challenges facing the United States. (12) This assessment, made clear repeatedly by senior U.S. officials, is based largely on Iran's weapons of mass destruction (WMD)...

Foreign policy and support for terrorist groups.(Iran: U.S. Concerns and Policy Responses)(Report)
December 1, 2011... Iran's foreign policy is a product of the ideology of Iran's Islamic revolution, blended with longstanding national interests and what some describe as a near obsession about U.S. strategic power. Some of Iran's leaders, including...

U.S. policy approaches and additional options.(Iran: U.S. concerns and Policy Responses)(Report)
December 1, 2011... The February 11, 1979, fall of the Shah of Iran, a key U.S. ally, opened a long and deep rift in U.S.-Iranian relations. As noted in the section on Iran's foreign policy and support of terrorism, U.S.-Iran differences predated and transcend more...

Conclusion.(Iran: U.S. Concerns and Policy Responses)(Report)
December 1, 2011... Mistrust between the United States and Iran's Islamic regime has run deep for more than three decades. Some argue that, no matter who is in power in Tehran, the United States and Iran have a common long-term interest in stability in the Persian...

U.S. arms sales: agreements with and deliveries to major clients, 2003-2010.(Report)
December 1, 2011... Contents Introduction US Agreements with Leading Purchasers, 2003-2010 US Deliveries to Leading Purchasers, 2003-2010 Contacts Author Contact Information December 16, 2011 Summary This report provides background data on U.S. arms...

Political transition in Tunisia.(Report)
December 1, 2011... Contents Tunisia's "Jasmine Revolution" Background Key Issues in the Transition A New Government Islam, Politics, and the State The Security Forces The Military Security Concerns Terrorism in Tunisia: Background...

The U.S.-Colombia free trade agreement: background and issues.(Report)
December 1, 2011... Contents Introduction Rationale for the Agreement Colombian Tariffs on Goods from the United States Review of the Proposed U.S.-Colombia Free Trade Agreement Key CFTA Provisions Market Access Tariff Elimination and Phase-Outs ...

Morocco: current issues.(Report)
December 1, 2011... Contents New Reforms and the "Arab Spring" The November 2011 Legislative Elections and a New Government A New Constitution Domestic Reactions Human Rights Council U.S. Reactions to Moroccan Reform Proposals Emerging Questions...

United Nations reform: U.S. policy and international perspectives.(Report)
December 1, 2011... Contents Introduction Background and Trends Reform Efforts (1980s and early 1990s) Reform Efforts (1997 to 2005) The 2005 U.N. World Summit Selected Reform Efforts Recent Reform Activities Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon and U.N....

Iran's nuclear program: Tehran's compliance with international obligations.(Report)
December 1, 2011... Contents Introduction Background Iran and the IAEA Potential Noncompliance Since September 2005 Iran and the U.N. Security Council Authority for IAEA and U.N. Security Council Actions IAEA Statute U.N. Charter and the...

EU-U.S. economic ties: framework, scope, and magnitude.(European Union)(Report)
December 1, 2011... Contents U.S. Interests The Framework of U.S.-EU Economic Ties U.S.-EU Trade in Goods and Services U.S.-EU Investment Flows and Positions Conclusions and Policy Implications CRS Reports Contacts Author Contact Information December 21, 2011...

Afghanistan: post-Taliban governance, security, and U.S. policy.
December 1, 2011... December 21, 2011 Summary Stated U.S. policy is to ensure that Afghanistan will not again become a base for terrorist attacks against the United States. Following policy reviews in 2009, the Obama Administration asserted that it was...

Background.(Afghanistan: Post-Taliban Governance, Security, and U.S. Policy)(Report)
December 1, 2011... Afghanistan has a history of a high degree of decentralization, and resistance to foreign invasion and occupation. Some have termed it the "graveyard of empires." From Early History to the 19th Century Alexander the Great conquered what is...

Security policy, 2011-2014 "transition, and beyond".(Afghanistan: Post-Taliban Governance, Security, and U.S. Policy)(Report)
December 1, 2011... Security Policy, 2011-2014 "Transition, and beyond". (14) The formal Obama Administration policy goal is to prevent Afghanistan from again becoming a safe haven for global terrorism, but the U.S. criteria for judging achievement of that goal...

Regional dimension.(Afghanistan: Post-Taliban Governance, Security, and U.S. Policy)(Report)
December 1, 2011... Most of Afghanistan's neighbors believed that the fall of the Taliban in Afghanistan would stabilize the region, but Taliban and other Islamist militants have continued to challenge the Afghan government, have battled the government of Pakistan,...

Keys to Afghanistan's post-war future: U.S. and International aid and economic development.(Afghanistan: Post-Taliban Governance, Security, and U.S. Policy)(Report)
December 1, 2011... Experts have long believed that accelerating economic development would do more to improve the security situation than other policy components, and that economic development is widely considered pivotal to Afghanistan's ability to shape its...

Residual issues from past conflicts.(Afghanistan: Post-Taliban Governance, Security, and U.S. Policy)
December 1, 2011... A few issues remain unresolved from Afghanistan's many years of conflict, such as Stinger retrieval and mine eradication. Stinger Retrieval Beginning in late 1985 following internal debate, the Reagan Administration provided about 2,000...

Appendix. U.S. and international sanctions lifted.(Afghanistan: Post-Taliban Governance, Security, and U.S. Policy)(Report)
December 1, 2011... Virtually all U.S. and international sanctions on Afghanistan, some imposed during the Soviet occupation era and others on the Taliban regime, have now been lifted. * P.L. 108-458 (December 17, 2004, referencing the 9/11 Commission...

U.S.-EU trade and economic relations: key policy issues for the 112th congress.(European Union)(Report)
December 1, 2011... Contents Introduction Deepening Transatlantic Economic Ties Reducing Regulatory Barriers Negotiating a Zero-Tariff Agreement Negotiating a Barrier-Free Investment Agreement Cooperation to Strengthen the World Economy Completing the...

Kim Jong-il's death: implications for North Korea's stability and U.S. policy.(Report)
December 1, 2011... December 22, 2011 Summary North Korea represents one of the United States' biggest foreign policy challenges due to its production and proliferation of nuclear weapons and missiles, the threat of attacks against South Korea, its record of...

Globalization, worker insecurity, and policy approaches.(Report)
December 1, 2011... Contents Introduction Trends Driving Global Economic Integration Technology Global Labor Supply Government Policy Sources of Worker Insecurity Job Losses and Fears Rising Income Inequality Policy Approaches Adjustment...

The United Arab Emirates (UAE): issues for U.S. Policy.(Report)
December 1, 2011... Contents Governance, Human Rights, and Reform Political Reforms: Background and Effects of 2011 Regional Unrest Arab Uprisings Increase Focus on September 24, 2011, FNC Election Substantial Political Unrest Avoided To...

The new start treaty: central limits and key provisions.(STrategic Arms Reduction Treaty)(Report)
December 1, 2011... Contents Introduction Central Limits and Key Provisions Central Limits Limits on Delivery Vehicles Limits on Warheads Conversion and Elimination ICBM Launchers Mobile ICBM launchers SLBM Launchers Heavy...

Changes in the Arctic: background and issues for Congress.
December 1, 2011... December 23, 2011 Summary The diminishment of Arctic sea ice has led to increased human activities in the Arctic, and has heightened interest in, and concerns about, the region's future. The United States, by virtue of Alaska, is an Arctic...

Introduction.(Changes in the Arctic: Background and Issues for Congress)(Brief article)
December 1, 2011... The diminishment of Arctic sea ice has led to increased human activities in the Arctic, and has heightened interest in, and concerns about, the region's future. Issues such as Arctic sovereignty claims; commercial shipping through the Arctic;...

Background.(Changes in the Arctic: Background and Issues for Congress)
December 1, 2011... Definitions of the Arctic There are multiple definitions of the Arctic that result in differing descriptions of the land and sea areas encompassed by the term. Policy discussions of the Arctic can employ varying definitions of the region, and...

Issues for Congress.(Changes in the Arctic: Background and Issues for Congress)(Report)
December 1, 2011... Climate Change and Loss of Arctic Sea Ice (27) Record low extent of Arctic sea ice in 2007 focused scientific and policy attention on its linkage to global climate change, and to the implications of projected ice-free (28) seasons in the...

CRS reports on specific arctic-related issues.(Changes in the Arctic: Background and Issues for Congress)(Congressional Research Service)(Report)
December 1, 2011... CRS Report RL34266, Climate Change: Science Highlights, by Jane A. Leggett CRS Report RS21890, The U.N. Law of the Sea Convention and the United States: Developments Since October 2003, by Marjorie Ann Browne CRS Report RL32838, Arctic...

The National Intelligence Council (NIC): issues and options for Congress.(Report)
December 1, 2011... Contents Background: What Is the NIC? The NIC's Evolving Role Congressional Options and the NIC Conclusion Contacts Author Contact Information December 27, 2011 Summary The National Intelligence Council (NIC), composed of some 18...

Iraq: politics, governance, and human rights.(Report)
December 1, 2011... Contents Overview of the Political Transition/First Elections Initial Transition and Construction of the Political System January 30, 2005, Elections for an Interim Government Permanent Constitution December 15, 2005, Elections Post-2005...

Yemen: background and U.S. relations.(Report)
December 1, 2011... Contents Yemen in Transition? Background The November 23 GCC Transition Initiative Recent U.S. Policy Toward Yemen Congressional Action Fighting Against AQAP Militia in Abyan U.S. Counterterrorism Policy Awlaki Killed...

The National Security Council: an organizational assessment.(Report)
December 1, 2011... Contents Introduction Pre-NSC Coordination Methods The Need for Interdepartmental Coordination Past Modes of Policy Coordination The Creation of the NSC Introduction Proposals Congressional Consideration The NSC as Created in...

Intelligence issues for Congress.(Report)
December 1, 2011... Contents Most Recent Developments Background and Analysis Intelligence Community Authorization Legislation The "INTs": Intelligence Disciplines Other "INTs" Integrating the "INTs" Intelligence Budget Process The 9/11...

Bahrain: reform, security, and U.S. policy.(Report)
December 1, 2011... Contents The Political Structure, Reform, and Human Rights Some Separation of Powers Established by King Hamad Post-Charter Elections and Political Groups 2002 Elections 2006 Elections The 2010 National Assembly and Municipal...

Arab League boycott of Israel.(Report)
December 1, 2011... Contents Background Current Status of the Boycott Impact of the Boycott U.S. Activity to End the Arab League Boycott of Israel U.S. Antiboycott Compliance Legislation Export-Related Antiboycott Legislation Tax-Related Antiboycott...

Presidential nominating process: current issues.(Report)
December 1, 2011... Contents 2008 Election Calendar Changes, 1988-2008 National Party Rules Changes for 2012 Evaluating the Primary System Reform Proposals Legislative Considerations Contacts Author Contact Information December 30, 2011 Summary After a...