Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports and Issue Briefs articles from April 2012

Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports and Issue Briefs archives from April 2012

The Strategic Petroleum Reserve: Authorization, Operation, and Drawdown Policy
April 2, 2012... Contents Introduction Background--Establishing the SPR International Energy Agency Obligation SPR Drawdown Authorities Severe Energy Supply Interruption Emergencies Severe Domestic Energy Supply Interruption Test Sale SPR Sites Bryan...

Iran Sanctions
April 2, 2012... April 2, 2012 Summary The objective of sanctions--to compel Iran to verifiably demonstrate that its nuclear program is for purely peaceful uses--has not been achieved to date. However, the international coalition that is imposing...

Overview
April 2, 2012... The Obama Administration's policy approach toward Iran has contrasted with the Bush Administration's by attempting to couple the imposition of sanctions with stepped-up U.S. participation in negotiations with Iran on the nuclear issue. However,...

Sanctions Targeting Foreign Energy Involvement in Iran: The Iran Sanctions Act (ISA), CISADA, and a November 2011 Executive Order
April 2, 2012... Since 1996, Congress and successive Administrations have put in place steps to try to force foreign energy firms to choose between participating in the U.S. market, or continuing to operate in or conduct various energy-related transactions with...

Ban on U.S. Trade and Investment with Iran
April 2, 2012... A ban on U.S. trade with and investment in Iran was imposed on May 6, 1995, by President Clinton, through Executive Order 12959. (13) This followed an earlier March 1995 executive order barring U.S. investment in Iran's energy sector. The trade...

Financial Sanctions: CISADA and Sanctions on Dealings with Iran's Central Bank
April 2, 2012... U.S. efforts to shut Iran out of the international banking system have gained strength as other countries have joined the effort. These efforts have been implemented by the Treasury Department through progressively strong actions discussed...

Terrorism List Designation-Related Sanctions
April 2, 2012... Several U.S. sanctions are in effect as a result of Iran's presence on the U.S. "terrorism list." The list was established by Section 6(j) of the Export Administration Act of 1979 (P.L. 96-72, as amended), sanctioning countries determined to...

Proliferation-Related U.S. Sanctions
April 2, 2012... Iran is prevented from receiving advanced technology from the United States under relevant and Iran-specific anti-proliferation laws (31) and by Executive Order 13382 (June 28, 2005). Some of these laws and executive measures seek to penalize...

U.S. Efforts to Promote Divestment
April 2, 2012... A growing trend not only in Congress but in several states is to require or call for or require divestment of shares of firms that have invested in Iran's energy sector (at the same levels considered sanctionable under the Iran Sanctions Act)....

U.S. Sanctions Intended to Support Democratic Change in Iran or Alter Iran's Foreign Policy
April 2, 2012... A trend since the June 2009 Iran election dispute has been to promote the prospects for the domestic opposition in Iran. Proposals to target the Revolutionary Guard for sanctions, discussed throughout, represent one facet of that trend. The IRGC...

Blocked Iranian Property and Assets
April 2, 2012... Iranian leaders continue to assert that the United States is holding Iranian assets, and that this is an impediment to improved relations. A U.S.-Iran Claims Tribunal at the Hague continues to arbitrate cases resulting from the 1980 break in...

U.N. Sanctions
April 2, 2012... The U.S. sanctions on Iran are more extensive than those imposed, to date, by the United Nations Security Council or by individual foreign countries or groups of countries, such as the European Union. U.N. sanctions apply to all U.N. member...

International Implementation and Compliance
April 2, 2012... U.S. and European/allied approaches had been gradually converging since 2002, when the nuclear issue came to the fore. As of 2010 an unprecedented degree of global consensus has emerged to pressure Iran. Many U.S. allies--including several...

Effectiveness of Sanctions on Iran
April 2, 2012... Assessing the effectiveness of U.S. and international sanctions depends upon which goals are being examined. The following sections examine the effectiveness of sanctions according to a variety of criteria. Effect on Nuclear Negotiations ...

Additional Sanctions: Possible Legislative, Administrative, and Multilateral Action
April 2, 2012... As discussed above, the Administration and its international partners have now begun to sanction what Iran perceives is its vital interest--its oil exports. However, the Administration maintains that the implementation of the oil-related...

Effects of Radiation from Fukushima Dai-Ichi on the U.S. Marine Environment
April 2, 2012... Contents Background Concerns Are There Implications for U.S. Seafood Safety? How Likely Is It That Radiation Will Reach U.S. Marine Waters, Through Either Ocean Currents or Atmospheric Transport? What Are the Likely Responses If...

Defining Homeland Security: Analysis and Congressional Considerations
April 2, 2012... Contents Introduction and Issue Evolution of the Homeland Security Concept Evolution of Homeland Security Strategic Documents Effects on Congressional Responsibilities Definitions and Missions as Part of Strategy Development Evolution...

U.S. Oil Imports and Exports
April 2, 2012... Contents Introduction U.S. Oil Imports and Exports Gross Imports Oil Exports Net Imports Fall by 33% Since 2005 Looking Forward: Falling Oil Import Dependence Oil, the Trade Balance, and U.S. Economy Policy Considerations Oil...

U.S. Foreign Aid to the Palestinians
April 2, 2012... Contents Introduction: Issues for Congress Palestinian U.N. Initiatives and Possible Fatah-Hamas Consensus--Effects on Aid Congressional Holds on FY2011 Aid FY2012 Aid and FY2013 Request Recent Historical Background Major Conditions,...

European Union Enlargement
April 2, 2012... Contents Introduction Evolution of the European Union Origins Birth of the EU The Big Bang: From 15 to 27 Further EU Institutional Reforms and Enlargement Process of Enlargement Current EU Acceding Countries and Candidates Croatia...

Afghanistan: Post-Taliban Governance, Security, and U.S. Policy
April 2, 2012... April 4, 2012 Summary The Obama Administration and several of its partner countries appear to be seeking to reduce U.S. military involvement in Afghanistan more rapidly than was previously envisioned, but without jeopardizing existing...

Background
April 2, 2012... Afghanistan has a history of a high degree of decentralization, and resistance to foreign invasion and occupation. Some have termed it the "graveyard of empires." From Early History to the 19th Century Alexander the Great conquered what is...

Security Policy, 2011-2014 "Transition, and Beyond"
April 2, 2012... The formal Obama Administration policy goal is to prevent Afghanistan from again becoming a safe haven for global terrorism, but the U.S. criteria for judging achievement of that goal have generally included the degree to which the Afghan...

Regional Dimension
April 2, 2012... Most of Afghanistan's neighbors believed that the fall of the Taliban in Afghanistan would stabilize the region, but Taliban and other Islamist militants have continued to challenge the Afghan government, have battled the government of Pakistan,...

Keys to Afghanistan's Post-War Future: U.S. and International Aid and Economic Development
April 2, 2012... Experts have long believed that accelerating economic development would do more to improve the security situation than other policy components, and that economic development is widely considered pivotal to Afghanistan's ability to shape its...

Residual Issues from Past Conflicts
April 2, 2012... A few issues remain unresolved from Afghanistan's many years of conflict, such as Stinger retrieval and mine eradication. Stinger Retrieval Beginning in late 1985 following internal debate, the Reagan Administration provided about 2,000...

Appendix. U.S. and International Sanctions Lifted
April 2, 2012... Virtually all U.S. and international sanctions on Afghanistan, some imposed during the Soviet occupation era and others on the Taliban regime, have now been lifted. * P.L. 108-458 (December 17, 2004, referencing the 9/11 Commission...

Women in Combat: Issues for Congress
April 2, 2012... Contents Issue Background Ground Combat Submarines Recent Commission Recommendations Recommendation 9 Recommendation 18 Recommendation 20 DOD Review Should Women be Barred from Combat Positions? Contacts Author...

The Republic of the Philippines and U.S. Interests
April 2, 2012... Contents Overview Policy Issues for Congress Political Developments 2010 Presidential Elections: Benigno Aquino III The Arroyo Presidency and Subsequent Arrest Extrajudicial Killings and Politically Motivated Violence Economic Conditions...

Navy Irregular Warfare and Counterterrorism Operations: Background and Issues for Congress
April 2, 2012... Contents Introduction Background Navy Irregular Warfare (IW) Operations Shift in Terminology from IW to Confronting Irregular Challenges (CIC) Navy IW Operations in Afghanistan and Iraq Navy IW Operations Elsewhere Navy...

Yemen: Background and U.S. Relations
April 2, 2012... Contents Yemen's Tenuous Transition "Reforming" the Yemeni Security Sector President Hadi Asserts His Authority Al Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula (AQAP): Domestic Insurgency U.S. Counterterrorism Policy in Yemen Congressional Action...

Pakistan: U.S. Foreign Assistance
April 2, 2012... Contents Introduction Recent Developments Fluctuating U.S. Aid to Pakistan Before 9/11 U.S. Aid to Pakistan After 9/11 Bilateral Economic, Development, and Humanitarian Assistance FATA Development Plan The Enhanced Partnership With...

U.S. Energy: Overview and Key Statistics
April 2, 2012... Contents Introduction Oil Petroleum Consumption, Supply, and Imports Petroleum and Transportation Petroleum Prices: Historical Trends Petroleum Prices: The 2004-2008 Bubble and Back Up Again Why Are Oil Prices So High Gasoline...

The Lord's Resistance Army: The U.S. Response
April 2, 2012... Contents Overview and Key Questions Background on the LRA International and Regional Efforts to End the LRA U.S. Policy P.L. 111-172: Impact and Implementation Deployment of U.S. Forces Logistical Support for the Ugandan...

Kuwait: Security, Reform, and U.S. Policy
April 2, 2012... Contents Kuwaiti Government Changes and Political Reform The National Assembly and Disputes With the Ruling Family Post-Succession Crises: Assembly Suspensions and Elections in 2006 and 2008 Political Crisis Continues:...

Detention of U.S. Persons as Enemy Belligerents
April 2, 2012... Contents Background Status and Detention of Persons in War U.S. Practice--Detention of Enemies on U.S. Territory The "Quasi War" with France and the War of 1212 The Civil War Ex Parte Milligan Other "Insurrections"--Moyer v....

The G-20 and International Economic Cooperation: Background and Implications for Congress
April 2, 2012... Contents Introduction The Rise of the G-20 as the Premier Forum for International Economic Cooperation Motivations for Economic Cooperation 1970s-1990s: Advanced Economies Dominate Financial Discussions 1990s-2008: Emerging Economies...

Millennium Challenge Corporation
April 2, 2012... Contents Most Recent Developments Introduction MCC Policy and Programs Selection of Candidate Countries Eligible Country Selection Criteria and Methodology Selection of Eligible Countries Country Selection-FY2012 MCC Compacts ...

U.S. Trade Deficit and the Impact of Changing Oil Prices
April 2, 2012... Contents Background Issues for Congress Contacts Author Contact Information April 13, 2012 Summary Petroleum prices rose sharply between September 2010 and June 2011, at times reaching more than $112 per barrel of crude oil. Although...

Trade Primer: Qs and as on Trade Concepts, Performance, and Policy
April 2, 2012... Contents Trade Concepts Trade Expansion and Globalization U.S. Trade Performance U.S. Trade Deficit Formulation of U.S. Trade Policy Role of Congress Role of the Executive Branch Role of the Private Sector Role of the Judiciary...

The U.S. Secret Service: An Examination and Analysis of Its Evolving Missions
April 2, 2012... Contents Introduction U.S. Secret Service Missions Investigations Protection Historical Overview of USSS Statutes Investigation Mission Protection Mission Policy Questions Missions Organization Department of the Treasury's...

Multilateral Development Banks: Overview and Issues for Congress
April 2, 2012... Contents Introduction Overview of the Multilateral Development Banks Historical Background World Bank Regional Development Banks Operations: Financial Assistance to Developing Countries Financial Assistance Over Time ...

Economic Growth and the Unemployment Rate
April 2, 2012... Contents The Relationship Between Growth and Unemployment The Unemployment Rate During Postwar Recoveries The Outlook for the Unemployment Rate in the Next Few Years April 18, 2012 Summary A persistently high unemployment rate is of...

Iraq: Politics, Governance, and Human Rights
April 2, 2012... Contents Overview of the Post-Saddam Political Transition Initial Transition and Construction of the Political System January 30, 2005, Elections for an Interim Government Permanent Constitution December 15, 2005, Elections...

Trafficking in Persons: International Dimensions and Foreign Policy Issues for Congress
April 2, 2012... Contents Introduction U.S. Foreign Policy Framework Foreign Policy Issues Foreign Country Reporting Foreign Product Blacklisting Foreign Aid and International Anti-Trafficking Projects Foreign Aid Restrictions Conditions on Country...

FY2013 Defense Budget Request: Overview and Context
April 2, 2012... Contents Introduction Base Budget Highlights Reductions in Overhead and Support Costs A Smaller but Ready Force 'Pivot' Toward the Pacific Modernization Personnel Costs Overseas Contingency Operations (OCO) Longer-Term Budget Issues...

Army Drawdown and Restructuring: Background and Issues for Congress
April 2, 2012... Contents Importance to Congress The Administration's Decision to Drawdown and Restructure the Army Background January 6, 2011, News Briefing with Secretary of Defense Gates and Chairman Admiral Mullen January 26, 2012, Administration...

The Strategic Petroleum Reserve: Authorization, Operation, and Drawdown Policy
April 2, 2012... Contents Introduction Background--Creating the SPR International Energy Agency Obligation SPR Drawdown Authorities Severe Energy Supply Interruption Emergencies Severe Domestic Energy Supply Interruption Test Sale SPR Sites Bryan Mound...

Iran Sanctions
April 2, 2012... April 26, 2012 Summary The objective of sanctions--to compel Iran to verifiably demonstrate that its nuclear program is for purely peaceful uses--may be on its way to achievement but has not been accomplished to date. The international...

Overview
April 2, 2012... U.N. and worldwide bilateral sanctions on Iran (the latest of which are imposed by Resolution 1929, adopted June 9, 2010) are a relatively recent (post-2006) development. U.S. sanctions, on the other hand, have been a major feature of U.S. Iran...

Terrorism List Sanctions: Ban on Aid and Other Programs
April 2, 2012... Several U.S. sanctions are in effect as a result of Iran's presence on the U.S. "terrorism list." The list was established by Section 6(j) of the Export Administration Act of 1979 (P.L. 96-72, as amended), sanctioning countries determined to...

Proliferation-Related U.S. Sanctions
April 2, 2012... Iran is prevented from receiving advanced technology from the United States under relevant and Iran-specific anti-proliferation laws (31) and by Executive Order 13382 (June 28, 2005). Some of these laws and executive measures seek to penalize...

U.N. Sanctions
April 2, 2012... The U.S. sanctions on Iran are more extensive than those imposed, to date, by the United Nations Security Council or by individual foreign countries or groups of countries, such as the European Union. U.N. sanctions apply to all U.N. member...

International Implementation and Compliance
April 2, 2012... International Implementation and Compliance (42) U.S. and European/allied approaches had been gradually converging since 2002, when the nuclear issue came to the fore. As of 2010 an unprecedented degree of global consensus has emerged to...

Effectiveness of Sanctions on Iran
April 2, 2012... Assessing the effectiveness of U.S. and international sanctions depends upon which goals are being examined. The following sections examine the effectiveness of sanctions according to a variety of criteria. Effect on Nuclear Negotiations ...

Additional Sanctions: Possible Legislative, Administrative, and Multilateral Action
April 2, 2012... As discussed above, the Administration and its international partners have now begun to sanction what Iran perceives is its vital interest--its oil exports. However, the Administration maintains that the implementation of the oil-related...

Cybersecurity: Authoritative Reports and Resources
April 2, 2012... Contents Introduction Legislation Hearings in the 112th Congress Executive Orders and Presidential Directives Data and Statistics Cybersecurity Glossaries Reports by Topic CRS Reports Overview: Cybersecurity Policy Framework CRS Reports:...

The U.S.-Colombia Free Trade Agreement: Background and Issues
April 2, 2012... Contents Introduction Rationale for the Agreement Colombian Tariffs on Goods from the United States Review of the U.S.-Colombia Free Trade Agreement Key CFTA Provisions Market Access Tariff Elimination and Phase-Outs ...