Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports and Issue Briefs articles from April 2008

Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports and Issue Briefs archives from April 2008

Avatars, virtual reality technology, and the U.S. Military: emerging policy issues.
April 1, 2008... Summary This report describes virtual reality technology, which uses three-dimensional user-generated content, and its use by the U.S. military and intelligence community for training and other purposes. Both the military and private...

Tibet: problems, prospects, and U.S. policy.(CRS Report for Congress)
April 1, 2008... Summary On March 10, 2008, a series of demonstrations began in Lhasa and other Tibetan regions of China to mark the 49th anniversary of an unsuccessful Tibetan uprising against Chinese rule in 1959. The demonstrations appeared to begin...

The role of offsets in a greenhouse gas emissions cap-and-trade program: potential benefits and concerns.(CRS Report for Congress)(Table)(Report)
April 1, 2008... Summary If Congress establishes a greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions reduction program (e.g., cap-and-trade system), the treatment of GHG emission offsets would likely be a critical design element. If allowed as part of an emissions program,...

Oil industry profit review 2007.(CRS Report for Congress)
April 1, 2008... Summary Increases in the price of crude oil that began in 2004 pushed the spot price of West Texas Intermediate (WTI), a key oil in determining market prices, to nearly $100 per barrel in the third quarter of 2007. Tight market conditions...

Taiwan's 2008 presidential election.(CRS Report for Congress)(Report)
April 1, 2008... Summary In a large turnout on March 22, 2008, voters in Taiwan elected as president Mr. Ma Ying-jeou of the Nationalist (KMT) Party. Mr. Ma out-polled rival candidate Frank Hsieh, of the pro-independence Democratic Progressive Party (DPP),...

Iraq: reconciliation and benchmarks.(CRS Report for Congress)(Table)(Report)
April 1, 2008... Summary Iraq's current government is the result of a U.S.-supported election process designed to produce democracy, although many believe it has produced a sectarian government incapable of reconciliation. The Administration says that,...

The REAL ID Act of 2005: legal, regulatory, and implementation issues.(CRS Report for Congress)(identification cards)(Report)
April 1, 2008... Summary In 2005, Congress addressed the issue of national standards for drivers' licenses and personal identification cards by passing The REAL ID Act of 2005 (REAL ID). The act contains a number of provisions relating to improved security...

Income inequality, income mobility, and economic policy: U.S. trends in the 1980s and 1990s.(CRS Report for Congress)(Report)
April 1, 2008... Summary Income inequality has been increasing in the United States over the past 25 years. Several factors have been identified as possibly contributing to increasing income inequality. Some researchers have suggested the decline in...

East Asia's foreign exchange rate policies.(CRS Report for Congress)(Report)
April 1, 2008... Summary The economies of East Asia have adopted a variety of foreign exchange rate policies, ranging from Hong Kong's currency board system which "links" the Hong Kong dollar to the U.S. dollar, to the "independently floating" exchange...

China Naval Modernization: implications for U.S. Navy Capabilities--background and issues for Congress.(CRS Report for Congress)
April 1, 2008... Summary Concern has grown in Congress and elsewhere since the 1990s about China's military modernization. The topic is an increasing factor in discussions over future required U.S. Navy capabilities. Several of the U.S. Navy's most...

Introduction.(China Naval Modernization: Implications for U.S. Navy Capabilities--Background and Issues for Congress)(Report)(Brief article)
April 1, 2008... Issue for Congress Concern has grown in Congress and elsewhere since the 1990s about China's military modernization and its potential implications for required U.S. military capabilities. China's military modernization is an increasing...

Background.
April 1, 2008... China's Naval Modernization (3) This section summarizes certain elements of China's military modernization that may have implications for required U.S. Navy capabilities. See Appendix B for additional details and commentary on several of...

Potential oversight issues for Congress.(China Naval Modernization: Implications for U.S. Navy Capabilities--Background and Issues for Congress)(Report)
April 1, 2008... Potential oversight questions for Congress arising from China's military modernization and its potential implications for required U.S. Navy capabilities can be organized into three groups: * questions relating to China's military...

Legislative activity for FY2008.(China Naval Modernization: Implications for U.S. Navy Capabilities--Background and Issues for Congress)
April 1, 2008... FY2008 Defense Authorization Act (H.R. 1585/S. 1547/H.R. 4986/P.L. 110-181) House. Section 1244 of the House-reported version of the FY2008 defense authorization bill (H.R. 1585) stated: SEC. 1244. SENSE OF CONGRESS CONCERNING THE...

Appendix A. examples of expressions of concern.(China Naval Modernization: Implications for U.S. Navy Capabilities--Background and Issues for Congress)(Report)
April 1, 2008... This appendix presents examples of expressions of concern about China's military modernization, and of its potential implications for U.S. Navy requirements. A May 2005 press report stated that: China is one of the central issues,...

Appendix B. additional details on China's Naval modernization efforts (192).(China Naval Modernization: Implications for U.S. Navy Capabilities--Background and Issues for Congress)
April 1, 2008... This appendix presents additional details and commentary on several of the elements of China's military modernization discussed in the "Background" section of this report. Theater-Range Ballistic Missiles (TBMs). Regarding the potential...

What is the "Farm Bill"?(Farm Security and Rural Investment Act of 2002)
April 1, 2008... Summary The farm bill, renewed about every five years, governs federal farm and food policy. The Farm Security and Rural Investment Act of 2002 (P.L. 107-171) is the most recent omnibus farm bill, covering a wide range of programs...

Farm bill legislative action in the 110th Congress.
April 1, 2008... Summary The farm bill governs federal farm and food policy and is renewed about every five years. The 110th Congress is seeking to revise the current farm bill (P.L. 107171), which covers a wide range of programs including commodity price...

Gasoline prices: issues for the 110th Congress.
April 1, 2008... Summary The high price of gasoline was an important consideration during the debate on the Energy Policy Act of 2005 (EPACT 2005), P.L. 109-58. As prices continued to surge, the continuing crisis renewed attention on some issues that were...

Afghanistan: post-war governance, security, and U.S. policy.(CRS Report for Congress)
April 1, 2008... Summary U.S. and outside assessments of the effort to stabilize Afghanistan are mixed and subject to debate; the Administration notes progress on reconstruction, governance and security in many areas of Afghanistan, particularly the...

Background to recent developments.(Afghanistan: Post-War Governance, Security, and U.S. Policy)
April 1, 2008... Prior to the founding of a monarchy in 1747 by Ahmad Shah Durrani, Afghanistan was territory inhabited by tribes and tribal confederations linked to neighboring nations, not a distinct entity. King Amanullah Khan (1919-1929) launched attacks on...

Post-war stabilization and reconstruction (5).(Afghanistan: Post-War Governance, Security, and U.S. Policy)
April 1, 2008... The war paved the way for the success of a decade-long U.N. effort to form a broad-based Afghan government; the United Nations was viewed as a credible mediator by all sides largely because of its role in ending the Soviet occupation. During...

Post-war security operations and force capacity building.(Afghanistan: Post-War Governance, Security, and U.S. Policy)
April 1, 2008... The top security priority of the Administration has been to prevent Al Qaeda and the Taliban from challenging the Afghan government. The pillars of the U.S. security effort are (1) continuing combat operations by U.S. forces and a NATO-led...

Regional context.(Afghanistan: Post-War Governance, Security, and U.S. Policy)
April 1, 2008... Although most of Afghanistan's neighbors believe that the fall of the Taliban has stabilized the region, some experts believe that some neighboring governments are attempting to manipulate Afghanistan's factions to their advantage, even though...

U.S. and international aid to Afghanistan and development issues.(Afghanistan: Post-War Governance, Security, and U.S. Policy)
April 1, 2008... Many experts believe that financial assistance and accelerating reconstruction would do more to improve the security situation than intensified anti-Taliban combat. Afghanistan's economy and society are still fragile after decades of warfare...

Residual issues from past conflicts.
April 1, 2008... A few issues remain unresolved from Afghanistan's many years of conflict, such as Stinger retrieval and mine eradication. Stinger Retrieval. Beginning in late 1985 following internal debate, the Reagan Administration provided about 2,000...

Appendix 1: U.S. and international sanctions lifted.(Afghanistan: Post-War Governance, Security, and U.S. Policy)
April 1, 2008... Virtually all U.S. and international sanctions on Afghanistan, some imposed during the Soviet occupation era and others on the Taliban regime, have now been lifted. * On January 10, 2003, President Bush signed a proclamation making...

Iraq: post-Saddam governance and security.
April 1, 2008... Summary Operation Iraqi Freedom overthrew Saddam Hussein's regime, but during 20042007 much of Iraq was highly violent because of Sunni Arab resentment and a related insurgency, resulting Sunni-Shiite sectarian violence, competition among...

Policy in the 1990s emphasized containment.(Iraq: Post-Saddam Governance and Security)
April 1, 2008... Prior to the January 16, 1991, launch of Operation Desert Storm to reverse Iraq's August 1990 invasion of Kuwait, President George H.W. Bush called on the Iraqi people to overthrow Saddam. That Administration decided not to try to do so...

Post-September 11, 2001: regime change and war.(Iraq: Post-Saddam Governance and Security)
April 1, 2008... Several senior Bush Administration officials had long been advocates of a regime change policy toward Iraq, but the difficulty of that strategy led the Bush Administration initially to continue its predecessor's containment policy. (11) Some...

Post-Saddam transition and governance.(Iraq: Post-Saddam Governance and Security)(Report)
April 1, 2008... According to statements by President Bush, U.S. goals are for an Iraq that can sustain, govern, and defend itself and is a partner in the global war on terrorism. Administration officials have, for the most part, dropped an earlier stated goal...

Security challenges and responses.(Iraq: Post-Saddam Governance and Security)(Report)
April 1, 2008... Since the fall of Saddam Hussein, the United States has employed a multifaceted approach to stabilizing Iraq, but in late 2006 the effort was determined by the Administration to be faltering. President Bush, in his January 10, 2007, speech on...

Iraq study group report, legislative proposals, and other options.(Iraq: Post-Saddam Governance and Security)(Report)
April 1, 2008... In formulating the "troop surge" strategy announced on January 10, 2007, President Bush said he weighed the December 6, 2006, report of the Iraq Study Group, as well as input from several other reviews, including one directed by the Joint...

Iran's activities and influence in Iraq.(CRS Report for Congress)(Report)
April 1, 2008... Summary Iran is materially assisting all major Shiite Muslim political factions in Iraq, most of which have longstanding ideological, political, and religious ties to Tehran, and their armed militias. The Administration notes growing...

U.S. forces in Iraq.(CRS Report for Congress)(Table)(Report)
April 1, 2008... Summary Varying media estimates of military forces in Iraq have raised concerns about the actual number of troops deployed in Operation Iraqi Freedom (OIF). Interest in troop level deployments continue in 2008. Last year, a major...

Congressional oversight of intelligence: current structure and alternatives.(CRS Report for Congress)(Report)
April 1, 2008... Summary Interest in congressional oversight of intelligence has risen again in the 110th Congress, in part because of the House Democratic majority's pledge to enact the remaining recommendations from the U.S. National Commission on...

Security implications of Taiwan's presidential election of March 2008.(CRS Report for Congress)(Report)
April 1, 2008... Summary This CRS Report analyzes the security implications of Taiwan's presidential election of March 22, 2008. This analysis draws in part from direct information gained through a visit to Taiwan to observe the election and to discuss...

AIDS funding for federal government programs: FY 1981-FY 2009.(CRS Report for Congress)(acquired immune deficiency syndrome)(Report)
April 1, 2008... Summary Federal government spending on HIV (the human immunodeficiency virus) and AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome) is estimated at $23.3 billion in FY2008. Of the total, 63% is for treatment programs; research programs receive...

Food price inflation: causes and impacts.(CRS Report for Congress)(Report)
April 1, 2008... Summary U.S. food prices rose 4% in 2007 and are expected to gain 3.5% to 4.5% in 2008. Higher farm commodity prices and energy costs are the leading factors behind higher food prices. Farm commodity prices have surged because (1) demand...

Iraq: regional perspectives and U.S. policy.(CRS Report for Congress)(United States)(Report)
April 1, 2008... Summary Iraq's neighbors have influenced events in Iraq since the fall of the Saddam Hussein regime in 2003, and developments in Iraq have had political, economic, and security implications for Iraq's neighbors and the broader Middle East....

Presidential claims of executive privilege: history, law, practice and recent developments.(CRS Report for Congress)(Report)
April 1, 2008... Summary Presidential claims of a right to preserve the confidentiality of information and documents in the face of legislative demands have figured prominently, though intermittently, in executive-congressional relations since at least...

Major U.S. arms sales and grants to Pakistan since 2001.(United States)
April 1, 2008... Major government-to-government arms sales and grants to Pakistan since 2001 have included items useful for counterterrorism operations, along with a number of "big ticket" platforms more suited to conventional warfare. In dollar value terms,...

Second FY2008 supplemental appropriations for military operations, international affairs, and other purposes.(CRS Report for Congress)(Report)
April 1, 2008... Summary During its first session, the 110th Congress provided emergency appropriations of $86.8 billion for the Department of Defense and $2.4 billion for international affairs, mainly for activities related to military operations in Iraq...

Organizing the U.S. government for national security: overview of the interagency reform debates.(CRS Report for Congress)(United States)(Report)
April 1, 2008... Summary A growing community of interest, including Members of Congress, senior officials in the executive branch, and think-tank analysts, is calling for a reexamination of how well the U.S. government, including both the executive branch...

2008-2009 presidential transition: national security considerations and options.(CRS Report for Congress)(Report)
April 1, 2008... Summary A presidential transition is a unique time in America and holds the promise of opportunity, as well as a possible risk to the nation's security interests. The 2008-2009 election marks the first presidential transition in the...

Pakistan's 2008 elections: results and implications for U.S. policy: April 9, 2008.(CRS Report for Congress)(United States)(Report)
April 1, 2008... Summary A stable, democratic, prosperous Pakistan actively working to counter Islamist militancy is considered vital to U.S. interests. Pakistan is a key ally in U.S.-led counterterrorism efforts. The history of democracy in Pakistan is a...

Churches and campaign activity: analysis under tax and campaign finance laws.(CRS Report for Congress)(Report)
April 1, 2008... Summary Churches and other houses of worship qualify for tax-exempt status as Internal Revenue Code [section] 501(c)(3) organizations. One qualification for [section] 501(c)(3) status is that these organizations may not participate in...

Removing aliens from the United States: judicial review of removal orders.(CRS Report for Congress)(Report)
April 1, 2008... Summary Aliens may be removed from the United States for a variety of reasons, such as entering into the country unlawfully, overstaying a visa, or committing a crime. Prior to removal, however, aliens usually have access to a removal...

China naval modernization: implications for U.S. Navy capabilities--background and issues for Congress.(CRS Report for Congress)(United States)(Report)
April 1, 2008... Summary Concern has grown in Congress and elsewhere since the 1990s about China's military modernization. Several of the U.S. Navy's most expensive acquisition programs, as well as Navy initiatives for homeporting ships and for training...

Background.(China Naval Modernization: Implications for U.S. Navy Capabilities--Background and Issues for Congress)(Report)
April 1, 2008... China's Naval Modernization (3) This section summarizes certain elements of China's military modernization that may have implications for required U.S. Navy capabilities. See Appendix B for additional details and commentary on several of...

Potential oversight issues for Congress.(China Naval Modernization: Implications for U.S. Navy Capabilities--Background and Issues for Congress)(Report)
April 1, 2008... Potential oversight questions for Congress arising from China's military modernization and its potential implications for required U.S. Navy capabilities can be organized into three groups: * questions relating to China's military...

Appendix A. Examples of Expressions of Concern.(China Naval Modernization: Implications for U.S. Navy Capabilities--Background and Issues for Congress)
April 1, 2008... This appendix presents some examples since 2005 of expressions of concern about China's military modernization, and of its potential implications for U.S. Navy requirements. A May 2005 press report stated that: China is one of the...

Appendix B. Additional details on China's naval modernization efforts (205).(China Naval Modernization: Implications for U.S. Navy Capabilities--Background and Issues for Congress)
April 1, 2008... This appendix presents additional details and commentary on several of the elements of China's military modernization discussed in the "Background" section of this report. Missiles. Theater-Range Ballistic Missiles (TBMs). Regarding...

Foreign investment, CFIUS, and homeland security: an overview.(CRS Report for Congress)(Committee on Foreign Investment in the United States)(Report)
April 1, 2008... Summary The President is generally seen as exercising broad discretionary authority over developing and implementing U.S. direct investment policy, including the authority to suspend or block investments that "threaten to impair the...

Renewable energy R&D funding history: a comparison with funding for nuclear energy, fossil energy, and energy efficiency R&D.(CRS Report for Congress)(research and development)(Report)
April 1, 2008... Summary Energy research and development (R&D) intended to advance technology played an important role in the successful outcome of World War II. In the post-war era, the federal government conducted R&D on fossil fuel and nuclear energy...

Oversight of dual-use biological research: the National Science Advisory Board for biosecurity.(CRS Report for Congress)(Organization overview)
April 1, 2008... Summary Policymakers have addressed the threat of biological weapons and biosecurity issues for many years. An issue garnering increased attention is the potential for life sciences research intended to enhance scientific understanding and...

U.S. airline industry: issues and role of Congress.(CRS Report for Congress)(Report)
April 1, 2008... Summary Mergers, airline bankruptcies, aircraft safety and maintenance concerns, extensive flight delays and cancellations, $100-plus-per-barrel oil prices, and a litany of other issues define congressional interest in the airline industry...

The U.S. trade situation for fruit and vegetable products: April 30, 2008.(CRS Report for Congress)(Report)
April 1, 2008... Summary Over the last decade, there has been a growing U.S. trade deficit in fresh and processed fruits and vegetables. Although U.S. fruit and vegetable exports totaled nearly $9 billion in 2007, U.S. imports of fruits and vegetables were...

The cost of Iraq, Afghanistan, and other Global War on Terror Operations since 9/11.(CRS Report for Congress)
April 1, 2008... With enactment of the FY2008 Consolidated Appropriations Act (H.R. 2764/P.L. 110-161 on December 26, 2007, Congress has approved a total of about $700 billion for military operations, base security, reconstruction, foreign aid, embassy costs,...

Introduction.(The Cost of Iraq, Afghanistan, and Other Global War on Terror Operations Since 9/11)
April 1, 2008... Since the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, the United States has initiated three military operations: * Operation Enduring Freedom (OEF) covering Afghanistan and other Global War on Terror (GWOT) operations ranging from the...

Potential war cost issues for the 110th Congress.(The Cost of Iraq, Afghanistan, and Other Global War on Terror Operations Since 9/11)(Report)(Brief article)
April 1, 2008... This report is designed to answer the frequently asked questions below as well as to address some of the major war cost issues likely to be faced in the 110th Congress. Potential issues include: * How much has Congress appropriated in total...

War cost estimates through FY2008 request.(The Cost of Iraq, Afghanistan, and Other Global War on Terror Operations Since 9/11)
April 1, 2008... CRS has estimated the allocation of all DOD budget authority (BA) by the three operations--Iraq, Afghanistan, and enhanced security--because DOD has not done so. Although DOD has reported the total amount appropriated for the Global War on...

Trends in war funding.(The Cost of Iraq, Afghanistan, and Other Global War on Terror Operations Since 9/11)
April 1, 2008... The total cost for all three operations--Iraq, Afghanistan, and other GWOT and enhanced security--has risen steeply since the 9/11 attacks primarily because of higher DOD spending in Iraq. Annual war appropriations more than doubled from about...

Potential war cost issues for the 110th Congress.(The Cost of Iraq, Afghanistan, and Other Global War on Terror Operations Since 9/11)(Report)
April 1, 2008... The following sections discuss several war cost issues that may arise during consideration of DOD's pending FY2008 Supplemental War Request of some $101 billion including: * How long the Army can operate before passage of the FY2008...

Problems in war cost estimates and reporting.(The Cost of Iraq, Afghanistan, and Other Global War on Terror Operations Since 9/11)(Report)
April 1, 2008... GAO, CBO and CRS have all testified to Congress about the limited transparency in DOD' war cost estimating and reporting. (101) While DOD has provided considerably more justification material for its war cost requests beginning with the FY2007...

Appendix.(The Cost of Iraq, Afghanistan, and Other Global War on Terror Operations Since 9/11)
April 1, 2008... Appendix Table A1. Defense Department, Foreign Operations Funding, and VA Medical Funding for Iraq, Afghanistan and Other Global War on Terror Activities, FY2001-FY2008 DOD Appropriations (in billions of dollars of budget...

Weak and failing states: evolving security threats and U.S. policy.(CRS Report for Congress)(Report)
April 1, 2008... Summary Although long a component of U.S. foreign policy, strengthening weak and failing states has increasingly emerged as a high-priority U.S. national security goal since the end of the Cold War. The past three U.S. National Security...

Burma and transnational crime.(CRS Report for Congress)(Report)
April 1, 2008... Summary Transnational organized crime groups in Burma (Myanmar) operate a multibillion dollar criminal industry that stretches across Southeast Asia. Trafficked drugs, humans, wildlife, gems, timber, and other contraband flow through...

Director of National Intelligence statutory authorities: status and proposals.(CRS Report for Congress)(Michael McConnell)(Report)
April 1, 2008... Summary In passing the Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004 (P.L. 108-458) in 2004, Congress approved the most comprehensive reform of the U.S. Intelligence Community since it was created over 50 years ago. Principal...

The National Bio- and Agro-Defense Facility: issues for Congress.(CRS Report for Congress)(Report)
April 1, 2008... Summary The agricultural and food infrastructure of the United States is potentially susceptible to terrorist attack using biological pathogens. In addition to the impacts of such an attack on the economy, some animal diseases could...

The Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis, and Malaria: progress report and issues for Congress.(CRS Report for Congress)(Report)
April 1, 2008... Summary The Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis, and Malaria, headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland, is an independent foundation that seeks to attract and rapidly disburse new resources in developing countries aimed at countering the...

The World Bank's International Development Association (IDA).(CRS Report for Congress)(Report)
April 1, 2008... Summary The World Bank is a Multilateral Development Bank (MDB) that makes loans and grants to low and middle-income countries to reduce poverty and promote economic development. Both the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund...

Kenya: the December 2007 elections and the challenges ahead.(CRS Report for Congress)(Report)
April 1, 2008... Summary Kenya, a nation of about 36.9 million people, has been an important ally of the United States for decades. Kenya moved from a one-party state to a multi-party democracy in 1992. Kenyans voted in record numbers in the country's...

Uganda: current conditions and the crisis in Northern Uganda.(CRS Report for Congress)(Report)
April 1, 2008... Summary In February 2006, Ugandans voted in the first multi-party elections in almost 26 years. President Yoweri Museveni and his ruling National Revolutionary Movement (NRM) parliamentary candidates won a decisive victory over opposition...

Intelligence issues for Congress.(CRS Report for Congress)(Report)
April 1, 2008... Summary To address the challenges facing the U.S. Intelligence Community in the 21st century, congressional and executive branch initiatives have sought to improve coordination among the different agencies and to encourage better analysis....

Iraq: oil and gas legislation, revenue sharing, and U.S. policy.(CRS Report for Congress)(Report)
April 1, 2008... Summary Iraqi leaders continue to debate a package of hydrocarbon sector and revenue sharing legislation that would define the terms for the future management and development of the country's significant oil and natural gas resources. The...

Foreign direct investment: current issues.(CRS Report for Congress)(Report)
April 1, 2008... Summary The United States is the largest recipient of foreign direct investment in the world and the largest investor abroad. As a result of this dual role, the United States has led negotiations in various international forums to remove...

U.S.-French commercial ties.(CRS Report for Congress)(Report)
April 1, 2008... Summary U.S. commercial ties with France are extensive, mutually profitable, and growing. With over $1.2 billion in commercial transactions taking place between the two countries every day of the year, each country has an increasingly...